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molecular and culture-dependent analyses revealed similarities in the endophytic bacterial community composition of leaves from three rice (oryza sativa) varieties.the endophytic bacterial communities of the three most important rice varieties cultivated in uruguay were compared by a multiphasic approach. leaves of mature plants grown in field experiments for two consecutive crop seasons were studied. no significant differences were found in the heterotrophic bacterial density for the three varieties. pantoea ananatis and pseudomonas syringae constituted 51% of the total of the isolates. these species were always present regardless of the variety or the se ...201222375835
evidence of a role for foliar salicylic acid in regulating the rate of post-ingestive protein breakdown in ruminants and contributing to landscape pollution.ruminant farming is important to global food security, but excessive proteolysis in the rumen causes inefficient use of nitrogenous plant constituents and environmental pollution. while both plant and microbial proteases contribute to ruminal proteolysis, little is known about post-ingestion regulation of plant proteases except that activity in the first few hours after ingestion of fresh forage can result in significant degradation of foliar protein. as the signal salicylic acid (sa) influences ...201222378947
bacteriophage ϕ6 nucleocapsid surface protein 8 interacts with virus-specific membrane vesicles containing major envelope protein 9.enveloped double-stranded rna (dsrna) bacterial virus pseudomonas phage ϕ6 has been developed into an advanced assembly system where purified virion proteins and genome segments self-assemble into infectious viral particles, inferring the assembly pathway. the most intriguing step is the membrane assembly occurring inside the bacterial cell. here, we demonstrate that the middle virion shell, made of protein 8, associates with the expanded viral core particle and the virus-specific membrane vesic ...201222379079
aberrant growth and lethality of arabidopsis deficient in nonsense-mediated rna decay factors is caused by autoimmune-like response.nonsense-mediated rna decay (nmd) is an evolutionarily conserved rna quality control mechanism that eliminates transcripts containing nonsense mutations. nmd has also been shown to affect the expression of numerous genes, and inactivation of this pathway is lethal in higher eukaryotes. however, despite relatively detailed knowledge of the molecular basis of nmd, our understanding of its physiological functions is still limited and the underlying causes of lethality are unknown. in this study, we ...201222379136
hda19 is required for the repression of salicylic acid biosynthesis and salicylic acid-mediated defense responses in arabidopsis.to cope with a lifetime of exposure to a variety of pathogens, plants have developed exquisite and refined defense mechanisms that vary depending on the type of attacking pathogen. defense-associated transcriptional reprogramming is a central part of plant defense mechanisms. chromatin modification has recently been shown to be another layer of regulation for plant defense mechanisms. here, we show that the rpd3/hda1-class histone deacetylase hda19 is involved in the repression of salicylic acid ...201222381007
the u-box/arm e3 ligase pub13 regulates cell death, defense, and flowering time in arabidopsis.the components in plant signal transduction pathways are intertwined and affect each other to coordinate plant growth, development, and defenses to stresses. the role of ubiquitination in connecting these pathways, particularly plant innate immunity and flowering, is largely unknown. here, we report the dual roles for the arabidopsis (arabidopsis thaliana) plant u-box protein13 (pub13) in defense and flowering time control. in vitro ubiquitination assays indicated that pub13 is an active e3 ubiq ...201222383540
fructose-bisphophate aldolase exhibits functional roles between carbon metabolism and the hrp system in rice pathogen xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzicola.fructose-bisphophate aldolase (fbab), is an enzyme in glycolysis and gluconeogenesis in living organisms. the mutagenesis in a unique fbab gene of xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzicola, the causal agent of rice bacterial leaf streak, led the pathogen not only unable to use pyruvate and malate for growth and delayed its growth when fructose was used as the sole carbon source, but also reduced extracellular polysaccharide (eps) production and impaired bacterial virulence and growth in rice. intriguingl ...201222384086
a role for nonsense-mediated mrna decay in plants: pathogen responses are induced in arabidopsis thaliana nmd mutants.nonsense-mediated mrna decay (nmd) is a conserved mechanism that targets aberrant mrnas for destruction. nmd has also been found to regulate the expression of large numbers of genes in diverse organisms, although the biological role for this is unclear and few evolutionarily conserved targets have been identified. expression analyses of three arabidopsis thaliana lines deficient in nmd reveal that the vast majority of nmd-targeted transcripts are associated with response to pathogens. congruentl ...201222384098
probing the arabidopsis flagellin receptor: fls2-fls2 association and the contributions of specific domains to signaling function.flagellin sensing2 (fls2) is a transmembrane receptor kinase that activates antimicrobial defense responses upon binding of bacterial flagellin or the flagellin-derived peptide flg22. we find that some arabidopsis thaliana fls2 is present in fls2-fls2 complexes before and after plant exposure to flg22. flg22 binding capability is not required for fls2-fls2 association. cys pairs flank the extracellular leucine rich repeat (lrr) domain in fls2 and many other lrr receptors, and we find that the cy ...201222388452
synergistic biosynthesis of biphasic ethylene and reactive oxygen species in response to hemibiotrophic phytophthora parasitica in tobacco plants.we observed the biphasic production of ethylene and reactive oxygen species (ros) in susceptible tobacco (nicotiana tabacum 'wisconsin 38') plants after shoot inoculation with phytophthora parasitica var nicotianae. the initial transient increase in ros and ethylene at 1 and 3 h (phase i), respectively, was followed by a second massive increase at 48 and 72 h (phase ii), respectively, after pathogen inoculation. this biphasic pattern of ros production significantly differed from the hypersensiti ...201222388490
housekeeping gene sequencing and multilocus variable-number tandem-repeat analysis to identify subpopulations within pseudomonas syringae pv. maculicola and pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato that correlate with host specificity.pseudomonas syringae pv. maculicola causes bacterial spot on brassicaceae worldwide, and for the last 10 years severe outbreaks have been reported in the loire valley, france. p. syringae pv. maculicola resembles p. syringae pv. tomato in that it is also pathogenic for tomato and causes the same types of symptoms. we used a collection of 106 strains of p. syringae to characterize the relationships between p. syringae pv. maculicola and related pathovars, paying special attention to p. syringae p ...201222389364
the multiple signaling systems regulating virulence in pseudomonas aeruginosa.cell-to-cell communication is a major process that allows bacteria to sense and coordinately react to the fluctuating conditions of the surrounding environment. in several pathogens, this process triggers the production of virulence factors and/or a switch in bacterial lifestyle that is a major determining factor in the outcome and severity of the infection. understanding how bacteria control these signaling systems is crucial to the development of novel antimicrobial agents capable of reducing ...201222390972
arabidopsis wrky33 is a key transcriptional regulator of hormonal and metabolic responses toward botrytis cinerea infection.the arabidopsis (arabidopsis thaliana) transcription factor wrky33 is essential for defense toward the necrotrophic fungus botrytis cinerea. here, we aimed at identifying early transcriptional responses mediated by wrky33. global expression profiling on susceptible wrky33 and resistant wild-type plants uncovered massive differential transcriptional reprogramming upon b. cinerea infection. subsequent detailed kinetic analyses revealed that loss of wrky33 function results in inappropriate activati ...201222392279
plasmid pp62bp1 isolated from an arctic psychrobacter sp. strain carries two highly homologous type ii restriction-modification systems and a putative organic sulfate metabolism operon.the complete nucleotide sequence of plasmid pp62bp1 (34,467 bp), isolated from arctic psychrobacter sp. dab_al62b, was determined and annotated. the conserved plasmid backbone is composed of several genetic modules, including a replication system (rep) with similarities to the rep region of the iteron-containing plasmid pps10 of pseudomonas syringae. the additional genetic load of pp62bp1 includes two highly related type ii restriction-modification systems and a set of genes (slfrchsl) encoding ...201222392282
plastid genetic engineering in solanaceae.plastid genetic engineering has come of age, becoming today an attractive alternative approach for the expression of foreign genes, as it offers several advantages over nuclear transformants. significant progress has been made in plastid genetic engineering in tobacco and other solanaceae plants, through the use of improved regeneration procedures and transformation vectors with efficient promoters and untranslated regions. many genes encoding for industrially important proteins and vaccines, as ...201222395455
genomic analysis of the hydrocarbon-producing, cellulolytic, endophytic fungus ascocoryne sarcoides.the microbial conversion of solid cellulosic biomass to liquid biofuels may provide a renewable energy source for transportation fuels. endophytes represent a promising group of organisms, as they are a mostly untapped reservoir of metabolic diversity. they are often able to degrade cellulose, and they can produce an extraordinary diversity of metabolites. the filamentous fungal endophyte ascocoryne sarcoides was shown to produce potential-biofuel metabolites when grown on a cellulose-based medi ...201222396667
identification of immunogenic microbial patterns takes the fast lane. 201222403065
the gpsx gene encoding a glycosyltransferase is important for polysaccharide production and required for full virulence in xanthomonas citri subsp. citri.the gram-negative bacterium xanthomonas citri subsp. citri (xac) causes citrus canker, one of the most destructive diseases of citrus worldwide. in our previous work, a transposon mutant of xac strain 306 with an insertion in the xac3110 locus was isolated in a screening that aimed at identifying genes related to biofilm formation. the xac3110 locus was named as bdp24 for biofilm-defective phenotype and the mutant was observed to be affected in extracellular polysaccharide (eps) and lipopolysacc ...201222404966
a pseudomonas viridiflava-related bacterium causes a dark-reddish spot disease in glycine max.a virulent pseudomonas viridiflava-related bacterium has been identified as a new pathogen of soybean, one of the most important crops worldwide. the bacterium was recovered from forage soybean leaves with dark-reddish spots, and damage on petioles and pods was also observed. in contrast, common bean was not affected.201222407694
a microrna superfamily regulates nucleotide binding site-leucine-rich repeats and other mrnas.analysis of tomato (solanum lycopersicum) small rna data sets revealed the presence of a regulatory cascade affecting disease resistance. the initiators of the cascade are microrna members of an unusually diverse superfamily in which mir482 and mir2118 are prominent members. members of this superfamily are variable in sequence and abundance in different species, but all variants target the coding sequence for the p-loop motif in the mrna sequences for disease resistance proteins with nucleotide ...201222408077
dissecting phosphite-induced priming in arabidopsis infected with hyaloperonospora arabidopsidis.phosphite (phi), a phloem-mobile oxyanion of phosphorous acid (h(3)po(3)), protects plants against diseases caused by oomycetes. its mode of action is unclear, as evidence indicates both direct antibiotic effects on pathogens as well as inhibition through enhanced plant defense responses, and its target(s) in the plants is unknown. here, we demonstrate that the biotrophic oomycete hyaloperonospora arabidopsidis (hpa) exhibits an unusual biphasic dose-dependent response to phi after inoculation o ...201222408091
coronatine gene expression in vitro and in planta, and protein accumulation during temperature downshift in pseudomonas syringae.the plant pathogenic bacterium pseudomonas syringae pg4180 synthesizes high levels of the phytotoxin coronatine (cor) at the virulence-promoting temperature of 18 °c, but negligible amounts at 28 °c. temperature-dependent cor gene expression is regulated by a modified two-component system, consisting of a response regulator, corr, the histidine protein kinase cors, and a third component, termed corp. we analyzed at transcriptional and translational levels the expression of cors and the cma opero ...200922408526
induced systemic resistance in arabidopsis thaliana against pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato by 2,4-diacetylphloroglucinol-producing pseudomonas fluorescens.pseudomonas fluorescens strains that produce the polyketide antibiotic 2,4-diacetylphloroglucinol (2,4-dapg) are among the most effective rhizobacteria that suppress root and crown rots, wilts, and damping-off diseases of a variety of crops, and they play a key role in the natural suppressiveness of some soils to certain soilborne pathogens. root colonization by 2,4-dapg-producing p. fluorescens strains pf-5 (genotype a), q2-87 (genotype b), q8r1-96 (genotype d), and ht5-1 (genotype n) produced ...201222409433
regulation of small rna stability: methylation and beyond.as central components of rna silencing, small rnas play diverse and important roles in many biological processes in eukaryotes. aberrant reduction or elevation in the levels of small rnas is associated with many developmental and physiological defects. the in vivo levels of small rnas are precisely regulated through modulating the rates of their biogenesis and turnover. 2'-o-methylation on the 3' terminal ribose is a major mechanism that increases the stability of small rnas. the small rna methy ...201222410795
erwinia amylovora expresses fast and simultaneously hrp/dsp virulence genes during flower infection on apple trees.pathogen entry through host blossoms is the predominant infection pathway of the gram-negative bacterium erwinia amylovora leading to manifestation of the disease fire blight. like in other economically important plant pathogens, e. amylovora pathogenicity depends on a type iii secretion system encoded by hrp genes. however, timing and transcriptional order of hrp gene expression during flower infections are unknown.201222412891
student internships at the university hawai'i cancer center. 201222413103
the awr gene family encodes a novel class of ralstonia solanacearum type iii effectors displaying virulence and avirulence activities.we present here the characterization of a new gene family, awr, found in all sequenced ralstonia solanacearum strains and in other bacterial pathogens. we demonstrate that the five paralogues in strain gmi1000 encode type iii-secreted effectors and that deletion of all awr genes severely impairs its capacity to multiply in natural host plants. complementation studies show that the awr (alanine-tryptophan-arginine tryad) effectors display some functional redundancy, although awr2 is the major con ...201222414437
the molecular basis of host specialization in bean pathovars of pseudomonas syringae.biotrophic phytopathogens are typically limited to their adapted host range. in recent decades, investigations have teased apart the general molecular basis of intraspecific variation for innate immunity of plants, typically involving receptor proteins that enable perception of pathogen-associated molecular patterns or avirulence elicitors from the pathogen as triggers for defense induction. however, general consensus concerning evolutionary and molecular factors that alter host range across clo ...201222414441
complex formation between heme oxygenase and phytochrome during biosynthesis in pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato.the plant pathogen pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato carries two genes encoding bacterial phytochromes. sequence motifs identify both proteins (pstbphp1 and pstbphp2, respectively) as biliverdin ixα (bv)-binding phytochromes. pstbphp1 is arranged in an operon with a heme oxygenase (pstbpho)-encoding gene (pstbpho), whereas pstbphp2 is flanked downstream by a gene encoding a chey-type response regulator. expression of the heme oxygenase pstbpho yielded a green protein (λ(max) = 650 nm), indicative ...201222415794
differential expression of membrane proteins helps antarctic pseudomonas syringae to acclimatize upon temperature variations.antarctic bacteria are adapted to the extremely low temperature. the transcriptional and translational machineries of these bacteria are adapted to the sub-zero degrees of temperature. studies directed towards identifying the changes in the protein profiles during changes in the growth temperatures of an antarctic bacterium pseudomonas syringae lz4w may help in understanding the molecular basis of cold adaptation. in this study, subcellular fractionation methods of proteins were used for the enr ...201222418587
disruption of pamp-induced map kinase cascade by a pseudomonas syringae effector activates plant immunity mediated by the nb-lrr protein summ2.pathogen-associated molecular pattern (pamp)-triggered immunity (pti) serves as a primary plant defense response against microbial pathogens, with mekk1, mkk1/mkk2, and mpk4 functioning as a map kinase cascade downstream of pamp receptors. plant resistance (r) proteins sense specific pathogen effectors to initiate a second defense mechanism, termed effector-triggered immunity (eti). in a screen for suppressors of the mkk1 mkk2 autoimmune phenotype, we identify the nucleotide-binding leucine-rich ...201222423965
probing dna-lipid membrane interactions with a lipopeptide nanopore.association of dna molecules with lipid bilayer membranes is of considerable interest for a large variety of applications in biotechnology. here we introduce syringomycin e (sre), a small pore-forming lipopeptide produced by the bacterium pseudomonas syringae, as a facile sensor for the detection of dna interactions with lipid membranes. sre forms highly reproducible pores in cellular and artificial membranes. the pore structure involves bilayer lipids, which have a pronounced influence on open ...201222424398
the lectin receptor kinase-vi.2 is required for priming and positively regulates arabidopsis pattern-triggered immunity.plant cells can be sensitized toward a subsequent pathogen attack by avirulent pathogens or by chemicals such as β-aminobutyric acid (baba). this process is called priming. using a reverse genetic approach in arabidopsis thaliana, we demonstrate that the baba-responsive l-type lectin receptor kinase-vi.2 (lecrk-vi.2) contributes to disease resistance against the hemibiotrophic pseudomonas syringae and the necrotrophic pectobacterium carotovorum bacteria. accordingly, lecrk-vi.2 mrna levels incre ...201222427336
heat shock factor hsfb1 primes gene transcription and systemic acquired resistance in arabidopsis. 201222427343
development of an engineered bioluminescent reporter phage for detection of bacterial blight of crucifers.bacterial blight, caused by the phytopathogen pseudomonas cannabina pv. alisalensis, is an emerging disease afflicting important members of the brassicaceae family. the disease is often misdiagnosed as pepper spot, a much less severe disease caused by the related pathogen pseudomonas syringae pv. maculicola. we have developed a phage-based diagnostic that can both identify and detect the causative agent of bacterial blight and differentiate the two pathogens. a recombinant "light"-tagged reporte ...201222427491
ferredoxin containing bacteriocins suggest a novel mechanism of iron uptake in pectobacterium spp.in order to kill competing strains of the same or closely related bacterial species, many bacteria produce potent narrow-spectrum protein antibiotics known as bacteriocins. two sequenced strains of the phytopathogenic bacterium pectobacterium carotovorum carry genes encoding putative bacteriocins which have seemingly evolved through a recombination event to encode proteins containing an n-terminal domain with extensive similarity to a [2fe-2s] plant ferredoxin and a c-terminal colicin m-like cat ...201222427936
boosting crop yields with plant steroids.plant sterols and steroid hormones, the brassinosteroids (brs), are compounds that exert a wide range of biological activities. they are essential for plant growth, reproduction, and responses to various abiotic and biotic stresses. given the importance of sterols and brs in these processes, engineering their biosynthetic and signaling pathways offers exciting potentials for enhancing crop yield. in this review, we focus on how alterations in components of sterol and br metabolism and signaling ...201222438020
genome-wide analysis of plant nat-sirnas reveals insights into their distribution, biogenesis and function.many eukaryotic genomes encode cis-natural antisense transcripts (cis-nats). sense and antisense transcripts may form double-stranded rnas that are processed by the rna interference machinery into small interfering rnas (sirnas). a few so-called nat-sirnas have been reported in plants, mammals, drosophila, and yeasts. however, many questions remain regarding the features and biogenesis of nat-sirnas.201222439910
cotton ghmkk5 affects disease resistance, induces hr-like cell death, and reduces the tolerance to salt and drought stress in transgenic nicotiana benthamiana.mitogen-activated protein kinase (mapk) cascades are involved in various processes from plant growth and development to biotic and abiotic stress responses. mapk kinases (mapkks), which link mapks and mapkk kinases (mapkkks), play crucial roles in mapk cascades to mediate a variety of stress responses in plants. however, few mapkks have been functionally characterized in cotton (gossypium hirsutum). in this study, a novel gene, ghmkk5, from cotton belonging to the group c mapkks was isolated and ...201222442420
identification of expressed resistance gene-like sequences by data mining in 454-derived transcriptomic sequences of common bean (phaseolus vulgaris l.).common bean (phaseolus vulgaris l.) is one of the most important legumes in the world. several diseases severely reduce bean production and quality; therefore, it is very important to better understand disease resistance in common bean in order to prevent these losses. more than 70 resistance (r) genes which confer resistance against various pathogens have been cloned from diverse plant species. most r genes share highly conserved domains which facilitates the identification of new candidate r g ...201222443214
novel phakopsora pachyrhizi extracellular proteins are ideal targets for immunological diagnostic assays.phakopsora pachyrhizi, the causal agent of asian soybean rust (asr), continues to spread across the southeast and midsouth regions of the united states, necessitating the use of fungicides by producers. our objective in this research was to identify asr proteins expressed early during infection for the development of immunodiagnostic assays. we have identified and partially characterized a small gene family encoding extracellular proteins in the p. pachyrhizi urediniospore wall, termed pheps (fo ...201222447596
iodide oxidation by a novel multicopper oxidase from the alphaproteobacterium strain q-1.alphaproteobacterium strain q-1 is able to oxidize iodide (i(-)) to molecular iodine (i(2)) by an oxidase-like enzyme. one of the two isoforms of the iodide-oxidizing enzyme (ioe-ii) produced by this strain was excised from a native polyacrylamide gel, eluted, and purified. ioe-ii appeared as a single band (51 kda) and showed significant in-gel iodide-oxidizing activity in sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis without heat treatment. however, at least two bands with much high ...201222447601
ccrr, a tetr family transcriptional regulator, activates the transcription of a gene of the ethylmalonyl coenzyme a pathway in methylobacterium extorquens am1.the ethylmalonyl coenzyme a (ethylmalonyl-coa) pathway is one of the central methylotrophy pathways in methylobacterium extorquens involved in glyoxylate generation and acetyl-coa assimilation. previous studies have elucidated the operation of the ethylmalonyl-coa pathway in c(1) and c(2) assimilation, but the regulatory mechanisms for the ethylmalonyl-coa pathway have not been reported. in this study, a tetr-type activator, ccrr, was shown to regulate the expression of crotonyl-coa reductase/ca ...201222447902
plant programmed cell death caused by an autoactive form of prf is suppressed by co-expression of the prf lrr domain.in tomato, the nbarc-lrr resistance (r) protein prf acts in concert with the pto or fen kinase to determine immunity against pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato (pst). prf-mediated defense signaling is initiated by the recognition of two sequence-unrelated pst-secreted effector proteins, avrpto and avrptob, by tomato pto or fen. prf detects these interactions and activates signaling leading to host defense responses including localized programmed cell death (pcd) that is associated with the arrest o ...201222451646
abscisic acid deficiency antagonizes high-temperature inhibition of disease resistance through enhancing nuclear accumulation of resistance proteins snc1 and rps4 in arabidopsis.plant defense responses to pathogens are influenced by abiotic factors, including temperature. elevated temperatures often inhibit the activities of disease resistance proteins and the defense responses they mediate. a mutant screen with an arabidopsis thaliana temperature-sensitive autoimmune mutant bonzai1 revealed that the abscisic acid (aba)-deficient mutant aba2 enhances resistance mediated by the resistance (r) gene suppressor of npr1-1 constitutive1 (snc1) at high temperature. aba deficie ...201222454454
a maize cystatin suppresses host immunity by inhibiting apoplastic cysteine proteases.ustilago maydis is a biotrophic pathogen causing maize (zea mays) smut disease. transcriptome profiling of infected maize plants indicated that a gene encoding a putative cystatin (cc9) is induced upon penetration by u. maydis wild type. by contrast, cc9 is not induced after infection with the u. maydis effector mutant δpep1, which elicits massive plant defenses. silencing of cc9 resulted in a strongly induced maize defense gene expression and a hypersensitive response to u. maydis wild-type inf ...201222454455
evolution of a complex disease resistance gene cluster in diploid phaseolus and tetraploid glycine.we used a comparative genomics approach to investigate the evolution of a complex nucleotide-binding (nb)-leucine-rich repeat (lrr) gene cluster found in soybean (glycine max) and common bean (phaseolus vulgaris) that is associated with several disease resistance (r) genes of known function, including rpg1b (for resistance to pseudomonas glycinea1b), an r gene effective against specific races of bacterial blight. analysis of domains revealed that the amino-terminal coiled-coil (cc) domain, centr ...201222457424
glioblastoma multiforme: novel therapeutic approaches.the current therapy for glioblastoma multiforme involves total surgical resection followed by combination of radiation therapy and temozolomide. unfortunately, the efficacy for such current therapy is limited, and newer approaches are sorely needed to treat this deadly disease. we have recently described the isolation of bacterial proteins and peptides with anticancer activity. in phase i human clinical trials, one such peptide, p28, derived from a bacterial protein azurin, showed partial and co ...201222462021
characterization of a trypanosoma brucei alkb homolog capable of repairing alkylated dna.trypanosoma brucei encodes a protein (denoted tbabh) that is homologous to alkb of escherichia coli and alkb homolog (abh) proteins in other organisms, raising the possibility that trypanosomes catalyze oxidative repair of alkylation-damaged dna. tbabh was cloned and expressed in e. coli, and the recombinant protein was purified and characterized. incubation of anaerobic tbabh with fe(ii) and α-ketoglutarate (αkg) produces a characteristic metal-to-ligand charge-transfer chromophore, confirming ...201222465611
calmodulin-binding protein cbp60g is a positive regulator of both disease resistance and drought tolerance in arabidopsis.calmodulin-binding proteins (cbps) have been known to be involved in both biotic and abiotic stress responses. recently, two closely related cbps, arabidopsis sar deficient 1 and cbp60g, were found to belong to a new family of transcription factors that regulate salicylic acid (sa) biosynthesis triggered by microbe-associated molecular patterns. in this study, we found that overexpression of cbp60g in arabidopsis caused elevated sa accumulation, increased expression of the defense genes, and enh ...201222466450
large-scale analysis of conserved rare codon clusters suggests an involvement in co-translational molecular recognition events.an increasing amount of evidence from experimental and computational analysis suggests that rare codon clusters are functionally important for protein activity. most of the studies on rare codon clusters were performed on a limited number of proteins or protein families. in the present study, we present the sherlocc program and how it can be used for large scale protein family analysis of evolutionarily conserved rare codon clusters and their relation to protein function and structure. this larg ...201222467916
putative resistance gene markers associated with quantitative trait loci for fire blight resistance in malus 'robusta 5' accessions.breeding of fire blight resistant scions and rootstocks is a goal of several international apple breeding programs, as options are limited for management of this destructive disease caused by the bacterial pathogen erwinia amylovora. a broad, large-effect quantitative trait locus (qtl) for fire blight resistance has been reported on linkage group 3 of malus 'robusta 5'. in this study we identified markers derived from putative fire blight resistance genes associated with the qtl by integrating f ...201222471693
profiling thiol redox proteome using isotope tagging mass spectrometry.pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato strain dc3000 not only causes bacterial speck disease in solanum lycopersicum but also on brassica species, as well as on arabidopsis thaliana, a genetically tractable host plant(1,2). the accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ros) in cotyledons inoculated with dc3000 indicates a role of ros in modulating necrotic cell death during bacterial speck disease of tomato(3). hydrogen peroxide, a component of ros, is produced after inoculation of tomato plants with ps ...201222472559
paranoid potato: phytophthora-resistant genotype shows constitutively activated defense.phytophthora is the most devastating pathogen of dicot plants. there is a need for resistance sources with different modes of action to counteract the fast evolution of this pathogen. in order to better understand mechanisms of defense against p. infestans, we analyzed several clones of potato. two of the genotypes tested, sarpo mira and sw93-1015, exhibited strong resistance against p. infestans in field trials, whole plant assays and detached leaf assays. the resistant genotypes developed diff ...201222476463
oligo-dna custom macroarray for monitoring major pathogenic and non-pathogenic fungi and bacteria in the phyllosphere of apple trees.to monitor the richness in microbial inhabitants in the phyllosphere of apple trees cultivated under various cultural and environmental conditions, we developed an oligo-dna macroarray for major pathogenic and non-pathogenic fungi and bacteria inhabiting the phyllosphere of apple trees.201222479577
non-symbiotic haemoglobins-what's happening beyond nitric oxide scavenging?non-symbiotic haemoglobins have been an active research topic for over 30 years, during which time a considerable portfolio of knowledge has accumulated relative to their chemical and molecular properties, and their presence and mode of induction in plants. while progress has been made towards understanding their physiological role, there remain a number of unanswered questions with respect to their biological function. this review attempts to update recent progress in this area and to introduce ...201222479675
the arabidopsis ubiquitin ligases atl31 and atl6 control the defense response as well as the carbon/nitrogen response.in higher plants, the metabolism of carbon (c) and nitrogen nutrients (n) is mutually regulated and referred to as the c and n balance (c/n). plants are thus able to optimize their growth depending on their cellular c/n status. arabidopsis atl31 and atl6 encode a ring-type ubiquitin ligases which play a critical role in the c/n status response (sato et al. in plant j 60:852-864, 2009). since many atl members are involved in the plant defense response, the present study evaluated whether the c/n ...201222481162
xylella fastidiosa comparative genomic database is an information resource to explore the annotation, genomic features, and biology of different strains.the xylella fastidiosa comparative genomic database is a scientific resource with the aim to provide a user-friendly interface for accessing high-quality manually curated genomic annotation and comparative sequence analysis, as well as for identifying and mapping prophage-like elements, a marked feature of xylella genomes. here we describe a database and tools for exploring the biology of this important plant pathogen. the hallmarks of this database are the high quality genomic annotation, the f ...201222481888
valuable nutrients and functional bioactives in different parts of olive (olea europaea l.)-a review.the olive tree (olea europaea l.), a native of the mediterranean basin and parts of asia, is now widely cultivated in many other parts of the world for production of olive oil and table olives. olive is a rich source of valuable nutrients and bioactives of medicinal and therapeutic interest. olive fruit contains appreciable concentration, 1-3% of fresh pulp weight, of hydrophilic (phenolic acids, phenolic alchohols, flavonoids and secoiridoids) and lipophilic (cresols) phenolic compounds that ar ...201222489153
regulation of polyphosphate kinase production by antisense rna in pseudomonas fluorescens pf0-1.pseudomonas spp. adapt rapidly to environmental fluctuations. loss or overproduction of polyphosphate reduces the fitness of pseudomonas fluorescens pf0-1, indicating the importance of the fine-tuning of polyphosphate production. an antisense rna was investigated and shown to regulate the polyphosphate kinase gene (ppk) by a posttranscriptional mechanism reducing ppk transcript abundance.201222492458
oleic acid-dependent modulation of nitric oxide associated1 protein levels regulates nitric oxide-mediated defense signaling in arabidopsis.the conserved cellular metabolites nitric oxide (no) and oleic acid (18:1) are well-known regulators of disease physiologies in diverse organism. we show that no production in plants is regulated via 18:1. reduction in 18:1 levels, via a genetic mutation in the 18:1-synthesizing gene suppressor of sa insensitivity of npr1-5 (ssi2) or exogenous application of glycerol, induced no accumulation. furthermore, both no application and reduction in 18:1 induced the expression of similar sets of nuclear ...201222492810
requirement of the cytosolic interaction between pathogenesis-related protein10 and leucine-rich repeat protein1 for cell death and defense signaling in pepper.plants recruit innate immune receptors such as leucine-rich repeat (lrr) proteins to recognize pathogen attack and activate defense genes. here, we identified the pepper (capsicum annuum) pathogenesis-related protein10 (pr10) as a leucine-rich repeat protein1 (lrr1)-interacting partner. bimolecular fluorescence complementation and coimmunoprecipitation assays confirmed the specific interaction between lrr1 and pr10 in planta. avirulent xanthomonas campestris pv vesicatoria infection induces pr10 ...201222492811
type vi secretion system-associated gene clusters contribute to pathogenesis of salmonella enterica serovar typhimurium.the enteropathogen salmonella enterica serovar typhimurium employs a suite of tightly regulated virulence factors within the intracellular compartment of phagocytic host cells resulting in systemic dissemination in mice. a type vi secretion system (t6ss) within salmonella pathogenicity island 6 (spi-6) has been implicated in this process; however, the regulatory inputs and the roles of noncore genes in this system are not well understood. here we describe four clusters of noncore t6ss genes in s ...201222493086
prediction of the three-dimensional structure of serine/threonine protein kinase pto of solanum lycopersicum by homology modelling.the resistant gene pto of solanum lycopersicum interacts with the avr pto gene product of the bacterial pathogen pseudomonas syringae pv tomato to launch a cascade of molecular events that triggers the hypersensitive disease-resistance response in tamato. the paper describes attempts to predict the structure of pto encoding a serine/threonine protein kinase to understand the mechanism and function. a three-dimensional model based on the crystal structure of effect protein avr ptob complexed with ...201222493521
the mediator subunit sfr6/med16 controls defence gene expression mediated by salicylic acid and jasmonate responsive pathways.• arabidopsis sensitive to freezing6 (sfr6) controls cold- and drought-inducible gene expression and freezing- and osmotic-stress tolerance. its identification as a component of the mediator transcriptional co-activator complex led us to address its involvement in other transcriptional responses. • gene expression responses to pseudomonas syringae, ultraviolet-c (uv-c) irradiation, salicylic acid (sa) and jasmonic acid (ja) were investigated in three sfr6 mutant alleles by quantitative real-time ...201222494141
najazh regulates a subset of defense responses against herbivores and spontaneous leaf necrosis in nicotiana attenuata plants.the jasmonate zim domain (jaz) proteins function as negative regulators of jasmonic acid signaling in plants. we cloned 12 jaz genes from native tobacco (nicotiana attenuata), including nine novel jazs in tobacco, and examined their expression in plants that had leaves elicited by wounding or simulated herbivory. most jaz genes showed strong expression in the elicited leaves, but najazg was mainly expressed in roots. another novel herbivory-elicited gene, najazh, was analyzed in detail. rna inte ...201222496510
airborne signals from a wounded leaf facilitate viral spreading and induce antibacterial resistance in neighboring plants.many plants release airborne volatile compounds in response to wounding due to pathogenic assault. these compounds serve as plant defenses and are involved in plant signaling. here, we study the effects of pectin methylesterase (pme)-generated methanol release from wounded plants ("emitters") on the defensive reactions of neighboring "receiver" plants. plant leaf wounding resulted in the synthesis of pme and a spike in methanol released into the air. gaseous methanol or vapors from wounded pme-t ...201222496658
sequential delivery of host-induced virulence effectors by appressoria and intracellular hyphae of the phytopathogen colletotrichum higginsianum.phytopathogens secrete effector proteins to manipulate their hosts for effective colonization. hemibiotrophic fungi must maintain host viability during initial biotrophic growth and elicit host death for subsequent necrotrophic growth. to identify effectors mediating these opposing processes, we deeply sequenced the transcriptome of colletotrichum higginsianum infecting arabidopsis. most effector genes are host-induced and expressed in consecutive waves associated with pathogenic transitions, in ...201222496661
function of arabidopsis swap70 gef in immune response.in animals, major classes of rho guanine nucleotide exchange factors (gefs) possess a dbl (diffuse b-cell lymphoma)- homology (dh) domain that functions as a gef-catalytic domain. however, no gefs with the dh domain had been identified in plants. recently, we found that the rice homolog of human swap70, oryza sative (os) swap70, containing the dh domain, exhibited gef activity toward the rice rho gtpase osrac1, and regulates chitin-induced production of reactive oxygen species and defense gene e ...201222499172
membrane microdomain may be a platform for immune signaling.arabidopsis rps2 is a typical disease resistance (r) protein with nucleotide-binding leucine-rich repeats (nb-lrr). previously, we reported that rps2 is physically associated with some arabidopsis hypersensitive induced reaction (athir) proteins, which are enriched in membrane microdomains. biochemical and genetic analyses suggested that members of the athir gene family have a function in rps2-mediated immune signaling. here, we provide evidence that the pattern recognition receptor (prr) fls2 i ...201222499178
the tho/trex complex functions in disease resistance in arabidopsis.powdery mildew pathogens are biotrophic fungi that infect large number of plant species. edr1 (enhanced disease resistance 1) is a negative regulator of plant disease resistance, and loss-of-function in the edr1 gene confers enhanced disease resistance to powdery mildew pathogen golovinomyces cichoracearum. in an edr1 suppressor screen, we recently found that a mutation in hpr1, a component of the tho/trex complex, suppresses edr1-mediated disease resistance, however the hpr1 mutation enhances t ...201222499202
ros production during symbiotic infection suppresses pathogenesis-related gene expression.leguminous plants have exclusive ability to form symbiotic relationship with soil bacteria of the genus rhizobium. symbiosis is a complex process that involves multiple molecular signaling activities, such as calcium fluxes, production of reactive oxygen species (ros) and synthesis of nodulation genes. we analyzed the role of ros in defense gene expression in medicago truncatula during symbiosis and pathogenesis. studies in arabidopsis thaliana showed that the induction of pathogenesis-related ( ...201222499208
bactquant: an enhanced broad-coverage bacterial quantitative real-time pcr assay.bacterial load quantification is a critical component of bacterial community analysis, but a culture-independent method capable of detecting and quantifying diverse bacteria is needed. based on our analysis of a diverse collection of 16 s rrna gene sequences, we designed a broad-coverage quantitative real-time pcr (qpcr) assay--bactquant--for quantifying 16 s rrna gene copy number and estimating bacterial load. we further utilized in silico evaluation to complement laboratory-based qpcr characte ...201222510143
two homologous putative protein tyrosine phosphatases, ospfa-dsp2 and atpfa-dsp4, negatively regulate the pathogen response in transgenic plants.protein phosphatases, together with protein kinases, regulate protein phosphorylation and dephosphorylation, and play critical roles in plant growth and biotic stress responses. however, little is known about the biological functions of plant protein tyrosine dual-specificity phosphatase (pfa-dsp) in biotic stresses. here, we found that ospfa-dsp2 was mainly expressed in calli, seedlings, roots, and young panicles, and localized in cytoplasm and nucleus. ectopic overexpression of ospfa-dsp2 in r ...201222514699
extracellular atp signaling and homeostasis in plant cells.extracellular atp (eatp) is now recognized as an important signaling agent in plant growth and defense response to environmental stimuli. eatp has dual functions in plant cell signaling, which is largely dependent on its concentration in the extracellular matrix (ecm). a lethal level of eatp (extremely low or high) causes cell death, whereas a moderate level of eatp benefits plant growth and development. ecto-apyrases (nucleoside triphosphate-diphosphohydrolase) help control the eatp concentrati ...201222516815
requirement of siderophore biosynthesis for plant colonization by salmonella enterica.contaminated fresh produce has become the number one vector of nontyphoidal salmonellosis to humans. however, salmonella enterica genes essential for the life cycle of the organism outside the mammalian host are for the most part unknown. screening deletion mutants led to the discovery that an aroa mutant had a significant root colonization defect due to a failure to replicate. aroa is part of the chorismic acid biosynthesis pathway, a central metabolic node involved in aromatic amino acid and s ...201222522683
complete genome sequence, lifestyle, and multi-drug resistance of the human pathogen corynebacterium resistens dsm 45100 isolated from blood samples of a leukemia patient.corynebacterium resistens was initially recovered from human infections and recognized as a new coryneform species that is highly resistant to antimicrobial agents. bacteremia associated with this organism in immunocompromised patients was rapidly fatal as standard minocycline therapies failed. c. resistens dsm 45100 was isolated from a blood culture of samples taken from a patient with acute myelocytic leukemia. the complete genome sequence of c. resistens dsm 45100 was determined by pyrosequen ...201222524407
complexity of mirna-dependent regulation in root symbiosis.the development of root systems may be strongly affected by the symbiotic interactions that plants establish with soil organisms. legumes are able to develop symbiotic relationships with both rhizobial bacteria and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi leading to the formation of nitrogen-fixing nodules and mycorrhizal arbuscules, respectively. both of these symbiotic interactions involve complex cellular reprogramming and profound morphological and physiological changes in specific root cells. in additi ...201222527400
rna-seq analysis reveals that an ecf σ factor, acss, regulates achromobactin biosynthesis in pseudomonas syringae pv. syringae b728a.iron is an essential micronutrient for pseudomonas syringae pv. syringae strain b728a and many other microorganisms; therefore, b728a has evolved methods of iron acquirement including the use of iron-chelating siderophores. in this study an extracytoplasmic function (ecf) sigma factor, acss, encoded within the achromobactin gene cluster is shown to be a major regulator of genes involved in the biosynthesis and secretion of this siderophore. however, production of achromobactin was not completely ...201222529937
plasma membrane calcium atpases are important components of receptor-mediated signaling in plant immune responses and development.plasma membrane-resident receptor kinases (rks) initiate signaling pathways important for plant immunity and development. in arabidopsis (arabidopsis thaliana), the receptor for the elicitor-active peptide epitope of bacterial flagellin, flg22, is encoded by flagellin sensing2 (fls2), which promotes plant immunity. despite its relevance, the molecular components regulating fls2-mediated signaling remain largely unknown. we show that plasma membrane arabidopsis-autoinhibited ca(2+)-atpase (aca8) ...201222535420
structural and functional analysis of vq motif-containing proteins in arabidopsis as interacting proteins of wrky transcription factors.wrky transcription factors are encoded by a large gene superfamily with a broad range of roles in plants. recently, several groups have reported that proteins containing a short vq (fxxxvqxltg) motif interact with wrky proteins. we have recently discovered that two vq proteins from arabidopsis (arabidopsis thaliana), sigma factor-interacting protein1 and sigma factor-interacting protein2, act as coactivators of wrky33 in plant defense by specifically recognizing the c-terminal wrky domain and st ...201222535423
epigenetic variation in plant responses to defence hormones.there is currently much speculation about the role of epigenetic variation as a determinant of heritable variation in ecologically important plant traits. however, we still know very little about the phenotypic consequences of epigenetic variation, in particular with regard to more complex traits related to biotic interactions.201222543179
expression profiling of cucumis sativus in response to infection by pseudoperonospora cubensis.the oomycete pathogen, pseudoperonospora cubensis, is the causal agent of downy mildew on cucurbits, and at present, no effective resistance to this pathogen is available in cultivated cucumber (cucumis sativus). to better understand the host response to a virulent pathogen, we performed expression profiling throughout a time course of a compatible interaction using whole transcriptome sequencing. as described herein, we were able to detect the expression of 15,286 cucumber genes, of which 14,47 ...201222545095
structural basis for the impact of phosphorylation on the activation of plant receptor-like kinase bak1. 201222547027
brassinosteroid action in flowering plants: a darwinian perspective.the year 2012 marks the 150th anniversary of the publication of charles darwin's first botanical book, on the fertilization of orchids (1862), wherein he described pollen grains and outlined his evolutionary principles with respect to plant research. five decades later, the growth-promoting effect of extracts of orchid pollen on coleoptile elongation was documented. these studies led to the discovery of a new class of phytohormones, the brassinosteroids (brs) that were isolated from rapeseed (br ...201222547659
a pair of partially overlapping arabidopsis genes with antagonistic circadian expression.a large number of plant genes are aligned with partially overlapping genes in antisense orientation. transcription of both genes would therefore favour the formation of double-stranded rna, providing a substrate for the rnai machinery, and enhanced antisense transcription should therefore reduce sense transcript levels. we have identified a gene pair that resembles a model for antisense-based gene regulation as a t-dna insertion into the antisense gene causes a reduction in antisense transcript ...201222548050
characterization of each aefr and mext mutant in pseudomonas syringae pv. tabaci 6605.to investigate the mechanism of activation of the genes for resistance-nodulation-division (rnd) family members mexe, mexf, and oprn for multidrug resistance (mdr), we mutagenized aefr and mext, the potential regulators of mexef/oprn transcription in pseudomonas syringae pv. tabaci 6605 (pta 6605). aefr is a member of the tetr transcription factors, and is known to be required for production of the quorum-sensing molecules, acyl homoserine lactones (ahl), in p. syringae. furthermore, we found th ...201222552803
cellular function and molecular structure of ecto-nucleotidases.ecto-nucleotidases play a pivotal role in purinergic signal transmission. they hydrolyze extracellular nucleotides and thus can control their availability at purinergic p2 receptors. they generate extracellular nucleosides for cellular reuptake and salvage via nucleoside transporters of the plasma membrane. the extracellular adenosine formed acts as an agonist of purinergic p1 receptors. they also can produce and hydrolyze extracellular inorganic pyrophosphate that is of major relevance in the c ...201222555564
looking deep inside: detection of low-abundance proteins in leaf extracts of arabidopsis and phloem exudates of pumpkin.the field of proteomics suffers from the immense complexity of even small proteomes and the enormous dynamic range of protein concentrations within a given sample. most protein samples contain a few major proteins, which hamper in-depth proteomic analysis. in the human field, combinatorial hexapeptide ligand libraries (cpll; such as proteominer) have been used for reduction of the dynamic range of protein concentrations; however, this technique is not established in plant research. in this work, ...201222555880
genome-wide profiling of mirnas and other small non-coding rnas in the verticillium dahliae-inoculated cotton roots.micrornas (mirnas) and small interfering rnas (sirnas) are short (19-25 nucleotides) non-coding rna molecules that have large-scale regulatory effects on development and stress responses in plants. verticillium wilt is a vascular disease in plants caused by the fungal pathogen verticillium dahliae. the objective of this study is to investigate the transcriptional profile of mirnas and other small non-coding rnas in verticillium-inoculated cotton roots. four small rna libraries were constructed f ...201222558219
genetic analysis of the individual contribution to virulence of the type iii effector inventory of pseudomonas syringae pv. phaseolicola.several reports have recently contributed to determine the effector inventory of the sequenced strain pseudomonas syringae pv. phaseolicola (pph) 1448a. however, the contribution to virulence of most of these effectors remains to be established. genetic analysis of the contribution to virulence of individual p. syringae effectors has been traditionally hindered by the lack of phenotypes of the corresponding knockout mutants, largely attributed to a high degree of functional redundancy within the ...201222558247
functional and computational analysis of amino acid patterns predictive of type iii secretion system substrates in pseudomonas syringae.bacterial type iii secretion systems (t3sss) deliver proteins called effectors into eukaryotic cells. although n-terminal amino acid sequences are required for translocation, the mechanism of substrate recognition by the t3ss is unknown. almost all actively deployed t3ss substrates in the plant pathogen pseudomonas syringae pathovar tomato strain dc3000 possess characteristic patterns, including (i) greater than 10% serine within the first 50 amino acids, (ii) an aliphatic residue or proline at ...201222558318
pseudomonas viridiflava, a multi host plant pathogen with significant genetic variation at the molecular level.the pectinolytic species pseudomonas viridiflava has a wide host range among plants, causing foliar and stem necrotic lesions and basal stem and root rots. however, little is known about the molecular evolution of this species. in this study we investigated the intraspecies genetic variation of p. viridiflava amongst local (cretan), as well as international isolates of the pathogen. the genetic and phenotypic variability were investigated by molecular fingerprinting (rep-pcr) and partial sequenc ...201222558343
salivary glucose oxidase from caterpillars mediates the induction of rapid and delayed-induced defenses in the tomato plant.caterpillars produce oral secretions that may serve as cues to elicit plant defenses, but in other cases these secretions have been shown to suppress plant defenses. ongoing work in our laboratory has focused on the salivary secretions of the tomato fruitworm, helicoverpa zea. in previous studies we have shown that saliva and its principal component glucose oxidase acts as an effector by suppressing defenses in tobacco. in this current study, we report that saliva elicits a burst of jasmonic aci ...201222558369
silencing coi1 in rice increases susceptibility to chewing insects and impairs inducible defense.the jasmonic acid (ja) pathway plays a key role in plant defense responses against herbivorous insects. coronatine insensitive1 (coi1) is an f-box protein essential for all jasmonate responses. however, the precise defense function of coi1 in monocotyledonous plants, especially in rice (oryza sativa l.) is largely unknown. we silenced oscoi1 in rice plants via rna interference (rnai) to determine the role of oscoi1 in rice defense against rice leaf folder (lf) cnaphalocrocis medinalis, a chewing ...201222558386
novel miniature transposable elements in thermophilic synechococcus strains and their impact on an environmental population.the genomes of the two closely related freshwater thermophilic cyanobacteria synechococcus sp. strain ja-3-3ab and synechococcus sp. strain ja-2-3b'a(2-13) each host several families of insertion sequences (issoc families) at various copy numbers, resulting in an overall high abundance of insertion sequences in the genomes. in addition to full-length copies, a large number of internal deletion variants have been identified. issoc2 has two variants (issoc2∂-1 and issoc2∂-2) that are observed to h ...201222563047
erf5 and erf6 play redundant roles as positive regulators of ja/et-mediated defense against botrytis cinerea in arabidopsis.the ethylene response factor (erf) family in arabidopsis thaliana comprises 122 members in 12 groups, yet the biological functions of the majority remain unknown. of the group ix erfs, the ixc subgroup has been studied the most, and includes erf1, erf14 and ora59, which play roles in plant innate immunity. here we investigate the biological functions of two members of the less studied ixb subgroup: erf5 and erf6. in order to identify potential targets of these transcription factors, microarray a ...201222563431
cml9, an arabidopsis calmodulin-like protein, contributes to plant innate immunity through a flagellin-dependent signalling pathway.many stimuli such as hormones and elicitors induce changes in intracellular calcium levels to integrate information and activate appropriate responses. the ca(2+) signals are perceived by various ca(2+) sensors, and calmodulin (cam) is one of the best characterized in eukaryotes. calmodulin-like (cml) proteins extend the ca(2+) toolkit in plants; they share sequence similarity with the ubiquitous and highly conserved cam but their roles at physiological and molecular levels are largely unknown. ...201222563930
rna-binding proteins in plant immunity.plant defence responses against pathogen infection are crucial to plant survival. the high degree of regulation of plant immunity occurs both transcriptionally and posttranscriptionally. once transcribed, target gene rna must be processed prior to translation. this includes polyadenylation, 5'capping, editing, splicing, and mrna export. rna-binding proteins (rbps) have been implicated at each level of rna processing. previous research has primarily focused on structural rna-binding proteins of y ...201122567326
the moss physcomitrella patens as a model system to study interactions between plants and phytopathogenic fungi and oomycetes.the moss physcomitrella patens has a great potential as a model system to perform functional studies of plant interacting with microbial pathogens. p. patens is susceptible to fungal and oomycete infection, which colonize and multiply in plant tissues generating disease symptoms. in response to infection, p. patens activates defense mechanisms similar to those induced in flowering plants, including the accumulation of reactive oxygen species, cell death with hallmarks of programmed cell death, c ...201122567339
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