Publications

trypanosome-binding proteins of the tsetse flies glossina palpalis gambiensis and g. morsitans morsitans.	in this paper we describe a new, selective approach to identify protein ligand-receptor interactions between an arthropod vector and the parasite it transmits. biotinylated vector proteins were incubated with living parasites in physiological conditions. after extensive washing, the parasites were subjected to sds-page electrophoresis and the polypeptides were electroblotted onto nitrocellulose membrane. staining with avidin-horseradish peroxidase revealed only biotin-labeled proteins from the v ...	1996	9198586
kinetoplastid glucose transporters.	protozoa of the order kinetoplastida have colonized many habitats, and several species are important parasites of humans. adaptation to different environments requires an associated adaptation at a cell's interface with its environment, i.e. the plasma membrane. sugar transport by the kinetoplastida as a phylogenetically related group of organisms offers an exceptional model in which to study the ways by which the carrier proteins involved in this process may evolve to meet differing environment ...	1997	9271074
molecular characterization of trypanosome isolates from naturally infected domestic animals in burkina, faso.	a total of 33 trypanosome cryostabilates isolated from domestic animals (bovine and dogs) were analysed using the polymerase chain reaction (pcr). the pcr was undertaken on diluted and treated buffy coat solutions according to an easy protocol of purification, using primers specific to trypanosoma (nannomonas) congolense of savannah, riverine-forest, kilifi and tsavo types, t. (n) simiae, t. (trypanozoon) brucei and t. (duttonella) vivax. the results showed a lack of pcr sensitivity when target ...	1997	9299694
concealed transepithelial potentials and current rectification in tsetse fly malpighian tubules	1. electrophysiological techniques have been applied to tsetse fly malpighian tubules for the first time. 2. in either cl- or so42- ringer, both non-perfused and perfused tubules displayed transtubular potentials (vt) at or close to 0 mv. exposure to cyclic amp elicited a marked secretory response and, in so42- ringer, a sharp (lumen-positive) increase in vt. in cl- ringer, despite more than double the secretory response, there was little or no change in vt. 3. replacing cl- with so42- ringer, i ...	1994	9317633
electrical transients in the cell-volume response to cyclic amp of the tsetse fly malpighian tubule	1. using cyclic amp to stimulate perfused tsetse fly malpighian tubules bathed in so42- ringer frequently causes an immediate but transient peak in transtubular potential (vt), before stabilisation of vt at an increased value. 2. these transients were investigated by monitoring the associated changes in cable properties and currentvoltage (i/v) relationships. tubules were perfused and bathed in either cl- ringer or so42- ringer (containing 8 mmol l-1 cl-). 3. tubules bathed in cl- ringer sh ...	1996	9319501
commitment to differentiation and cell cycle re-entry are coincident but separable events in the transformation of african trypanosomes from their bloodstream to their insect form.	african trypanosomes undergo extensive changes in cellular morphology, biochemistry and surface antigen expression as they differentiate from their bloodstream form to those forms that colonise the midgut of their tsetse fly vector. if initiated with stumpy-form cells, a non-dividing sub-type of the bloodstream parasite, differentiation and cell cycle re-entry occur synchronously in the population and provide a means to dissect the respective controls of proliferation and transformation. we have ...	1997	9372450
position-dependent and promoter-specific regulation of gene expression in trypanosoma brucei.	trypanosoma brucei evades the mammalian immune response by a process of antigenic variation. this involves mutually exclusive and alternating expression of telomere-proximal variant surface glycoprotein genes (vsgs), which is controlled at the level of transcription. to examine transcription repression in t.brucei we inserted reporter genes, under the control of either rrna or vsg expression site (es) promoters, into various chromosomal loci. position-dependent repression of both promoters was o ...	1997	9405371
factors affecting trypanosome infection rate in tsetse fly (diptera: glossinidae) populations.	wide variations in trypanosome infection rate are observed in different tsetse fly (glossina spp.) populations environmental factors and features proper to the vector, mammalian host and infecting-trypanosome species acting in the acquisition and development of infective-trypanosome infection in tsetse are examined.	1997	9419848
comparison between tsetse fly synthetic diet and bovine blood on reproduction and survivorship in tabanus nigrovittatus (diptera: tabanidae).	a synthetic diet, developed for tsetse flies and fed to tabanus nigrovittatus macquart before the 2nd gonotrophic cycle, supported complete egg maturation. t. nigrovittatus is autogenous only during the 1st cycle. overall, 52% of females fed bovine blood and 46% fed the synthetic diet produced mature, stage 10 follicles. of these, 76% of the blood-fed females and 65% of those fed the synthetic diet laid egg masses, all of which hatched. the median adult survivorship was 9 d for blood-fed and 8 d ...	1997	9439131
activity of a trypanosome metacyclic variant surface glycoprotein gene promoter is dependent upon life cycle stage and chromosomal context.	african trypanosomes evade the mammalian host immune response by antigenic variation, the continual switching of their variant surface glycoprotein (vsg) coat. vsg is first expressed at the metacyclic stage in the tsetse fly as a preadaptation to life in the mammalian bloodstream. in the metacyclic stage, a specific subset (<28; 1 to 2%) of vsg genes, located at the telomeres of the largest trypanosome chromosomes, are activated by a system very different from that used for bloodstream vsg genes ...	1998	9488428
on the interpretation of age-prevalence curves for trypanosome infections of tsetse flies.	epidemiological models are used to analyse 8 published data sets reporting age-prevalence curves for trypanosome infections of the tsetse fly glossina pallidipes. a model assuming a fixed maturation period and a rate of infection which is independent of fly age is adequate for trypanosoma vivax-type infections, explaining 98% of observed variance in prevalence by site and age, allowing that the rate of infection may be site dependent. this model is not adequate for t. congolense-type infections ...	1998	9509024
[redistribution of glossina in a forest area of ivory coast?].	historically the region of abengourou is a well-known of sleeping sickness in the forest area of cote d'ivoire. however data from epidemiologic studies carried out since 1980 show that this area is currently disease-free. this finding warrants study of glossina vectors to clarify the epidemiology of the disease in this area. entomologic surveys were carried out over a period of one year. traps were used to capture glossina in ten natural habitats: villages with or without pigs, coffee, cocoa and ...	1997	9513155
a trypanosome metacyclic vsg gene promoter with two functionally distinct, life cycle stage-specific activities.	in the mammalian bloodstream, african trypanosomes express the variant surface glycoprotein (vsg), continual switching of which allows evasion of the host immune response. bloodstream vsg genes are transcribed from polycistronic bloodstream expression sites with promoters which are located 45-60 kb upstream. these promoters are not exclusively stage-regulated, being active in the insect midgut stage where vsg is not expressed. however, the metacyclic vsg (m-vsg) genes, a small subset activated w ...	1998	9518493
prevalence of tsetse fly and ruminant trypanosomosis in katsina-ala local government area, nigeria.	the prevalence of ruminant trypanosomosis and tsetse flies was investigated in katsina-ala local government area--a sleeping sickness endemic area--between the valleys of river benue, katsina-ala and donga in central nigeria. analysis of three hundred and twenty blood samples showed that among semi-nomadic animals, about one cattle (21.3%; 0.213, confidence interval c1 +/- 0.06) and two sheep (38.0%; 0.380, c1 +/- 0.10) out of five carried mature trypanosome infections. significantly lower (p < ...	1996	9558969
vsg gene control and infectivity strategy of metacyclic stage trypanosoma brucei.	as the metacyclic trypanosome stage develops in the tsetse fly salivary glands, it initiates expression of variant surface glycoproteins (vsgs) and does so by each cell activating, at random, one from a small subset of metacyclic vsg (m-vsg) genes. whereas differential activation of individual vsg genes in the bloodstream occurs as a function of time, to evade waves of antibody, it is believed that the aim in the metacyclic stage is simultaneously to generate population diversity. m-vsg genes ar ...	1998	9574928
effect of maternal age on offspring quality in tsetse (diptera: glossinidae).	the effects of maternal age on offspring quality were studied in 1 line of glossina palpalis palpalis robineau-desvoidy, 1 line of g. p. gambiensis vanderplank, and 3 lines of g. morsitans morsitans westwood by measuring offspring adult size and the duration of puparial period. g. p. gambiensis males also were examined for effects of maternal age on fluctuating asymmetry of wing veins. the puparial period was shorter in offspring of old females (late offspring) than in offspring of young females ...	1998	9615536
factors affecting the landing and feeding responses of the tsetse fly glossina pallidipes to a stationary ox.	in zimbabwe, studies were made of the landing and feeding responses of glossina pallidipes on an ox. of the tsetse approaching an ox, approximately 70% fed. increasing densities of tsetse increased the grooming responses of the ox but had no significant effect on the percentage of tsetse that engorged. the landing site of tsetse on the ox varied with density, with approximately 50% landing on the legs at low densities (< 20 flies per ox), compared to approximately 80% at densities > 40 flies per ...	1998	9622375
neuroendocrine dysfunction in african trypanosomiasis. the role of cytokines.	sleeping sickness (ss; african trypanosomiasis) is an anthropozoonosis transmitted by the tsetse fly. infection with trypanosoma brucei in humans is associated with adynamia, lethargy, anorexia, and more specifically amenorrhea/infertility in women and loss of libido/impotence in men. recent evidence suggests that experimental infection in animals with trypanosoma brucei species causes polyglandular endocrine failure by local inflammation of the pituitary, thyroid, adrenal, and gonadal glands. i ...	1998	9629307
trypanotolerance, an option for sustainable livestock production in areas at risk from trypanosomosis.	trypanosomosis is one of the major constraints on animal production in areas of africa which have the greatest potential for significant increases in domestic livestock populations and livestock productivity. while the eradication of trypanosomosis from the entire continent is an unrealistic goal, considerable effort has been invested in the control of this disease through the use of trypanocidal drugs, management of the vector and exploitation of the genetic resistance exhibited by indigenous b ...	1998	9638808
characterization of trypanosome infections by polymerase chain reaction (pcr) amplification in wild tsetse flies in cameroon.	the polymerase chain reaction (pcr) method was used to characterize trypanosome infections in tsetse flies from 3 sleeping sickness foci in cameroon. the predominant tsetse species found was glossina palpalis palpalis. an average infection rate of 12.1% was revealed by microscopical examination of 888 non-teneral tsets flies. pcr amplification analyses for trypanosome identification were carried out on 467 flies, with primer sets specific for trypanosoma (trypanozoon) brucei s.1., t. (duttonella ...	1998	9651938
molecular characterization of the principal symbiotic bacteria of the weevil sitophilus oryzae: a peculiar g + c content of an endocytobiotic dna.	the principal intracellular symbiotic bacteria of the cereal weevil sitophilus oryzae were characterized using the sequence of the 16s rdna gene (rrs gene) and g + c content analysis. polymerase chain reaction amplification with universal eubacterial primers of the rrs gene showed a single expected sequence of 1,501 bp. comparison of this sequence with the available database sequences placed the intracellular bacteria of s. oryzae as members of the enterobacteriaceae family, closely related to t ...	1998	9664696
pcr analysis and spatial repartition of trypanosomes infecting tsetse flies in sidéradougou area of burkina faso.	a parasitological and entomological survey was conducted in the sideradougou area (south of bobo dioulasso, burkina faso) in order to identify transmission factors of african trypanosomosis. a total of 3600 tsetse flies (glossina tachinoides, glossina palpalis gambiensis) were captured along 120 km of linear gallery forest and half of them were dissected. pcr analysis was undertaken on parasitologically positive flies (161 g. tachinoides, 92 g. palpalis gambiensis) to characterize the different ...	1998	9668447
vector-borne parasitic diseases--an overview of recent changes.	this paper summarises the impact of different changes (environmental, ecological, developmental) on the one hand, with the impact of control measures on the other. the former group of changes have tended to exacerbate the incidence and prevalence of vector-borne parasitic diseases while the reduced public funds available for the health sector have reduced disease surveillance systems. however, some vector control/eradication programmes have been successful. vector control in onchocerciasis and c ...	1998	9673871
new epidemiological features on animal trypanosomiasis by molecular analysis in the pastoral zone of sideradougou, burkina faso.	a multidisciplinary work was undertaken in the agropastoral zone of sidéradougou, burkina faso to try to elucidate the key factors determining the presence of tsetse flies. in this study the pcr was used to characterize trypanosomes infecting the vector (glossina tachinoides and glossina palpalis gambiensis) and the host, i.e. cattle. a 2-year survey involved dissecting 2211 tsetse of the two glossina species. a total of 298 parasitologically infected tsetse were analysed by pcr. trypanosoma viv ...	1998	9691491
factors influencing the prevalence of trypanosome infection of glossina pallidipes on the ruvu flood plain of eastern tanzania.	we report the pattern of infection of glossina pallidipes with trypanosoma vivax and t. congolense at a site in the coast region of eastern tanzania, studied between november 1993 and december 1994. of the 2315 flies dissected 114 (4.9%) were t. congolense positive, 77 (3.3%) were t. vivax positive and 2 (0.1%) were t. brucei positive. fly age was determined by the pteridine fluorescence method. prevalence of infection was most strongly affected by month and the linear effect of age with the int ...	1998	9698260
left-right asymmetry of fly wings and the evolution of body axes.	the body plan of drosophila, and presumably that of other insects, develops under the control of anterio-posterior and dorsal ventral axes, but no evidence for a left-right axis has yet been found. we used geometric morphometrics to study the wings in three species of flies: drosophila melanogaster, musca domestica and glossina palpalis gambiensis. in all three species, we found that both size and shape showed subtle, but statistically significant directional asymmetry. for size, these asymmetri ...	1998	9699316
microsatellite markers for genetic population studies in glossina palpalis gambiensis (diptera: glossinidae).	little is known about intraspecific variability in tsetse flies and its consequences for vectorial capacity. microsatellite markers have been developed for glossina palpalis gambiensis. three loci have been identified and showed size polymorphisms for insectarium samples. g. palpalis gambiensis from burkina faso were also subjected to pcr to investigate then genetic variability. amplifications were observed in different species belonging to the palpalis group. these molecular markers will be use ...	1998	9705735
detection and identification of trypanosomes by polymerase chain reaction in wild tsetse flies in cameroon.	the prevalence of various species and subgroups of trypanosomes in infected flies from three sleeping sickness foci in cameroon was determined by the use of polymerase chain reaction (pcr). the predominant tsetse species found were glossina palpalis palpalis. microscopical examination of 943 non-teneral tsetse flies revealed an average infection rate of 10.4%. a total of 90 flies were analyzed for trypanosome identification with primer sets specific for trypanosoma (trypanozoon) brucei s.l., t. ...	1998	9707369
transformation of monomorphic trypanosoma brucei bloodstream form trypomastigotes into procyclic forms at 37 degrees c by removing glucose from the culture medium.	african trypanosomes have been shown previously to undergo efficient transformation from bloodstream forms to procyclic (insect dwelling) forms in vitro by adding citrate and/or cis-aconitate to the culture medium and lowering incubation temperature to 27 degrees c. in this paper, it is shown that strain 427 monomorphic bloodstream forms of trypanosoma brucei grown in axenic culture at 37 degrees c can be transformed to procyclic forms by simply replacing the glucose carbon source in the culture ...	1998	9719513
the modified dna base beta-d-glucosyl-hydroxymethyluracil is not found in the tsetse fly stages of trypanosoma brucei.		1998	9719516
[vectorial competence of glossina palpalis palpalis, glossina p. gambiensis and glossina morsitans morsitans flies for a clone of trypanosoma (nannomonas) congolense il 1180].	the authors report on the results of experimental infections of teneral (age < 32 hours) and non-teneral (age between 80 and 96 hours) glossina palpalis palpalis, g. p. gambiensis and g. morsitans morsitans with trypanosoma congolense il 1180. flies were infected once on a parasitaemic rat. teneral flies, both sexes indiscriminate, showed a procyclic and metacyclic infection rate respectively of 0.0588 and 0.7272 for g. p. palpalis; 0.0525 and 0.0416 for g. p. gambiensis; 0.6493 and 0.7300 for g ...	1998	9754312
identification of stage-regulated and differentiation-enriched transcripts during transformation of the african trypanosome from its bloodstream to procyclic form.	trypanosoma brucei undergoes dramatic stage-specific changes in surface antigen expression, metabolic development, cellular morphogenesis and cell-cycle control. these events can be studied in detail during the transition between the bloodstream stumpy stage and the tsetse fly midgut procyclic form. this differentiation can be induced in vitro, is synchronous in the population and there are abundant markers for stage-regulated and differentiation events. we have used this differentiation system ...	1998	9763291
susceptibility to trypanosomosis of three bos indicus cattle breeds in areas of differing tsetse fly challenge.	studies to assess the differences in susceptibility to trypanosomosis among bos indicus cattle breeds (maasai zebu, orma boran and galana boran) were conducted under conditions of varying tsetse fly challenge at the nguruman escarpment in south-western kenya, for a period of 1 year. it was found that under tsetse challenge quantified as high, maasai zebu and orma boran were less susceptible than galana boran to trypanosome infections, as judged by the significantly lower incidence of infection, ...	1998	9777722
degradation of a radiolabeled juvenile hormone analog using two insect species.	a synthetic insect juvenile hormone analog (a juvenoid), ethyl n-[2-[4-[[2,2-(ethylenedioxy)cyclohexyl]methyl]phenox]ethyl]carbam ate, which has displayed high biological activity against different insect species and high stability under field conditions, was selected as a biologically active model compound for a study of a juvenile hormone analog degradation. the biologically active compound itself and its three diversely radiolabeled derivatives were applied to the flesh fly (sarcophaga bullat ...	1997	9783444
glossina morsitans morsitans and glossina palpalis palpalis: dosage compensation raises questions about the milligan model for control of trypanosome development.	evidence that dosage compensation occurs in tsetse flies was obtained by comparing the activities of x chromosome-linked enzymes, arginine phosphokinase and glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase in glossina m. morsitans and hexokinase and phosphoglucomutase in glossina p. palpalis, with the activity of an autosome-linked enzyme, malate dehydrogenase, in each species. the shortcomings of the x chromosome model for the control of trypanozoon maturation in tsetse are discussed in light of these finding ...	1998	9806869
review of tsetse flies and trypanosomosis in south africa.	the history of tsetse flies and nagana (trypanosomosis) in south africa, and especially in zululand, is reviewed. four valid tsetse fly species have been recorded from south africa. glossina morsitans morsitans disappeared from the most northerly parts of south africa during the rinderpest epizootic between 1896-1897. of the three remaining species that occurred in zululand, now part of kwazulunatal province, g. pallidipes was the most common vector of nagana in cattle, but was eradicated from t ...	1998	9809324
[vectorial competence of glossina tachinoides westwood and glossina palpalis gambiensis vanderplank infected by trypanosoma brucei brucei eatro 1125].	the vectorial competence (vc) of teneral (less than 32 h) glossina tachinoides westwood and g. palpalis gambiensis vanderplank, fed simultaneously on a guinea-pig infected with trypanosoma brucei brucei eatro 1125, was assessed. statistical analysis of the experimental results revealed that female g. tachinoides had a significantly higher midgut infection rate than males. such a sex-related difference was not observed in g. p. gambiensis. male g. p. gambiensis had higher midgut infection rates t ...	1998	9851007
history of sleeping sickness in east africa.	the history of human sleeping sickness in east africa is characterized by the appearance of disease epidemics interspersed by long periods of endemicity. despite the presence of the tsetse fly in large areas of east africa, these epidemics tend to occur multiply in specific regions or foci rather than spreading over vast areas. many theories have been proposed to explain this phenomenon, but recent molecular approaches and detailed analyses of epidemics have highlighted the stability of human-in ...	1999	9880477
sodalis gen. nov. and sodalis glossinidius sp. nov., a microaerophilic secondary endosymbiont of the tsetse fly glossina morsitans morsitans.	a secondary intracellular symbiotic bacterium was isolated from the haemolymph of the tsetse fly glossina morsitans morsitans and cultured in aedes albopictus cell line c6/36. pure-culture isolation of this bacterium was achieved through the use of solid-phase culture under a microaerobic atmosphere. after isolation of strain m1t, a range of tests was performed to determine the phenotypic properties of this bacterium. considering the results of these tests, along with the phylogenetic position o ...	1999	10028272
tsetse challenge, trypanosome and helminth infection in relation to productivity of village ndama cattle in senegal.	data on tsetse fly, and on village ndama cattle collected over a 4-year period in southern senegal, were analysed. a total of 431 ndama cattle in four herds of three villages in the upper casamance area of southern senegal were monitored monthly. glossina morsitans submorsitans and glossina palpalis gambiensis are present in the study area. mean tsetse apparent density was 5.4 flies/trap/day. trypanosome (trypanosoma congonlense and trypanosoma vivax) infection rate in flies was 2.4 (s.e. 0.37)% ...	1999	10190867
genetic exchange in the trypanosomatidae.	the only trypanosomatid so far proved to undergo genetic exchange is trypanosoma brucei, for which hybrid production after co-transmission of different parental strains through the tsetse fly vector has been demonstrated experimentally. analogous mating experiments have been attempted with other trypanosoma and leishmania species, so far without success. however, natural leishmania hybrids, with a combination of the molecular characters of two sympatric species, have been described amongst both ...	1999	10214689
ultrastructural localization of unique neurosecretory granules in the corpora cardiaca of the stable fly, stomoxys calcitrans, and the tsetse fly, glossina morsitans.	ultrastructural analysis of the corpora cardiaca of the stable fly, stomoxys calcitrans, and the tsetse fly, glossina morsitans, revealed the presence of elementary neurosecretory granules (eng) unique to the intrinsic neurosecretory cells (inc) of these species. in addition to electron-dense spheres, the inc of the corpus species. in addition to electron-dense spheres, the inc of the corpus cardiacum of the stable fly contain electrondense angular granules, either square or rectangular in shape ...	1999	10322625
trypanosoma brucei spp. development in the tsetse fly: characterization of the post-mesocyclic stages in the foregut and proboscis.	post-mesocyclic development of trypanosoma brucei in the tsetse fly in its migration from midgut to salivary glands, was revisited by sequential microdissection, morphometry and dna-cytofluorometry. this development started by day 6 after the infective feed, with passage of mesocyclic midgut trypomastigotes through proventriculus and upward migration along foregut and proboscis to the salivary gland ducts. kinetics of salivary gland infection showed that colonization of the salivary glands by ep ...	1999	10363280
is sleeping sickness a circadian disorder? the serotonergic hypothesis.	patients with human african trypanosomiasis (hat, sleeping sickness), due to the inoculation of trypanosoma brucei gambiense or rhodesiense by the tsetse fly, are "sleepy by day and restless by night." the first 24 h polysomnographic recording (electroencephalogram [eeg], electromyogram [emg], electrooculogram [eog]), showing a disappearance of the 24 h rhythmicity of sleep and wakefulness, was performed in 1988. thereafter, our team recorded 18 patients and 6 control volunteers at bed rest duri ...	1999	10442241
effects of urbanization on transmission of human african trypanosomiasis in a suburban relict forest area of daloa, côte d'ivoire.	the epidemiological risk of human african trypanosomiasis transmission was evaluated from entomological parameters (apparent trap density, female teneral rates, daily survival rates, proportion of human feeds) of tsetse (glossina palpalis palpalis) populations in the town of daloa, côte d'ivoire. high tsetse densities were found in the town outskirts, where the calculated risk of transmission was greatest. environmental changes brought about by urbanization did not result in the disappearance of ...	1999	10450433
resurgence of sleeping sickness in tambura county, sudan.	endemic foci of human african trypanosomiasis are present in southern sudan. in 1996 and 1997, trypanosomiasis increased sharply in tambura county. to define the magnitude and geographic distribution of the outbreak, we conducted a prevalence survey using population-based cluster sampling in 16 villages: 1,358 participants answered questions about routine activities and tsetse fly contact and received serologic testing. seroprevalence in the surveyed area was 19.4% (95% confidence interval = 16. ...	1999	10463686
[age group distribution of glossina palpalis palpalis females in plantations and shallow water of the forest region of côte d'ivoire. relation to the prevalence of sleeping sickness].	in epidemiologically dangerous biotopes of foci with high prevalence of human african trypanosomiasis (hat), different female age groups (nulliparous, young parous, old parous) were observed in the same proportions. on the contrary, in areas without hat or in low prevalence foci (< 0.2%), these proportions significantly differed. female age group distribution in epidemiologically dangerous biotopes could thus be a good indication by which to guide the control of human african trypanosomiasis (ha ...	1999	10472452
isozymic comparison of five laboratory lines of tsetse flies belonging to the two subspecies of glossina palpalis (diptera: glossinidae).	three laboratory colonies of glossina palpalis palpalis and two of g. p. gambiensis have been characterized by means of 14 polymorphic enzyme loci. the presence/absence of some alleles for three enzymes (octanol dehydrogenase, phosphoglucomutase and aldehyde oxidase) distinguished the two subspecies. other differences in allozymes could not be used to discriminate between subspecies but could be used to distinguish populations within each of the subspecies. the genetic differences between popula ...	1999	10492677
antigenic variation in trypanosoma brucei infections: an holistic view.	trypanosoma brucei parasites undergo clonal phenotypic (antigenic) variation to promote their transmission between mammals and tsetse-fly vectors. this process is classically considered to be a mechanism for evading humoral immune responses, but such an explanation cannot account for the high rate of switching between variable antigens or for their hierarchical (i.e. non-random) expression. i suggest that these anomalies can be explained by a new model: that antigenic variation has evolved as a ...	1999	10504324
identification of bloodmeals in haematophagous diptera by cytochrome b heteroduplex analysis.	we developed a dna assay for bloodmeal identification in haematophagous insects. specific host cytochrome b gene sequences were amplified by pcr and classified on the basis of their mobility in a heteroduplex assay. in the blackfly simulium damnosum s.l. (diptera: simuliidae), human cytochrome b dna sequences were identifiable up to 3 days following ingestion of the bloodmeal. in the tsetse glossina palpalis (diptera: glossinidae) collected from tsetse traps in ivory coast, bloodmeals were ident ...	1999	10514054
n-linked glycans containing linear poly-n-acetyllactosamine as sorting signals in endocytosis in trypanosoma brucei.	african trypanosomes, such as trypanosoma brucei, are protozoan parasites that are transmitted by the tsetse fly and cause sleeping sickness in humans and nagana in cattle. trypanosomes evade the immune responses of their hosts by varying their surface coat protein (vsg) and restricting exocytosis and endocytosis to an invagination of the plasma membrane called the flagellar pocket (fp). the fp represents only 0.5% of the cellular surface but membrane turnover here occurs at high rates [1] [2] [ ...	1999	10531030
a structural and transcription pattern for variant surface glycoprotein gene expression sites used in metacyclic stage trypanosoma brucei.	african trypanosomes first express the variant surface glycoprotein (vsg) at the metacyclic stage in the tsetse fly vector, in preparation for transfer into the mammal. metacyclic (m)vsgs comprise a specific vsg repertoire subset and their expression is regulated differently from that of bloodstream vsgs, involving exclusively transcriptional regulation during the life cycle. to identify basic structural and functional features that may be common to mvsg telomeric transcription units, we have ch ...	1999	10551359
the gpi biosynthetic pathway as a therapeutic target for african sleeping sickness.	african sleeping sickness is a debilitating and often fatal disease caused by tsetse fly transmitted african trypanosomes. these extracellular protozoan parasites survive in the human bloodstream by virtue of a dense cell surface coat made of variant surface glycoprotein. the parasites have a repertoire of several hundred immunologically distinct variant surface glycoproteins and they evade the host immune response by antigenic variation. all variant surface glycoproteins are anchored to the pla ...	1999	10571022
breeding structure of glossina pallidipes populations evaluated by mitochondrial variation.	mitochondrial dna diversity was studied at four loci in six natural populations of the tsetse fly glossina pallidipes from zimbabwe, mozambique, kenya, and ethiopia. single-locus diversity varied from 0.39 at 12s to 0.65 at coii. a total of 32 haplotypes was found with a mean of 6.4 +/- 2.9 per locus. to study breeding structure, diversity at two loci, coii and 16s2, was evaluated in 18 populations sampled from an area of approximately 1,611,000 km2 and in three laboratory cultures. twenty-six h ...	1999	10589514
african trypanosomiasis in two travelers from the united states.	african trypanosomiasis is a rare but well-documented cause of fever in united states travelers returning from areas where it is endemic. we report two recently diagnosed cases that involved tourists who went on safari in tanzania. review of these and 29 other published cases indicates that disease in returning united states travelers is nearly always of the east african form, a fulminant illness for which prompt diagnosis is necessary. in the united states, timely and appropriate therapy for th ...	1999	10589900
slender and stumpy bloodstream forms of trypanosoma brucei display a differential response to extracellular acidic and proteolytic stress.	natural infections of mammals with african trypanosomes, such as trypanosoma brucei, are generally pleomorphic, the population consisting of different forms, termed slender and stumpy forms, that vary in number as the parasitaemia develops. we show that the differentiation of slender into stumpy forms is characterized by the acquisition by the parasite of the ability to regulate its internal ph, even in the face of a large, inwardly directed gradient of h+, as well as a tolerance towards externa ...	2000	10601846
intraspecific variability in natural populations of glossina palpalis gambiensis from west africa, revealed by genetic and morphometric analyses.	glossina palpalis gambiensis vanderplank (diptera: glossinidae) from west africa (senegal and burkina faso) were analysed for microsatellite dna polymorphisms and size of the wings. in the overall sample a strong heterozygote deficiency was found at two polymorphic microsatellite loci. it led to a highly significant value of fis (within-sample heterozygote deficit) in the western zone of sideradougou area in burkina faso. genetic differentiation was significant on a macrogeographic scale, i.e. b ...	1999	10608229
study on the mechanical transmission by tsetse fly glossina morsitans centralis of trypanosoma vivax, t. congolense or t. brucei brucei to goats.		2000	10643915
independent evolution of toll and related genes in insects and mammals.	toll and toll-related proteins play an important role in antibacterial innate immunity in insect, plants, and mammals. we present the first comprehensive phylogenetic analyses of toll-related genes from both insects and mammals. drosophila melanogaster contains toll and a highly homologous gene, tehao. the protein, dm tehao, comprises 795 amino acid residues and its cytoplasmic domain shares a striking 61% identity with dm toll. two toll homologues were found in another dipteran of medical impor ...	2000	10663571
[diversity of feeding behavior of glossina palpalis palpalis in the forest belt of the ivory coast: relation to the prevalence of human african trypanosomiasis].	the feeding habits of glossina palpalis palpalis, the main vector of human african trypanosomiasis (hat) were retrospectively analysed using data collected between 1984 and 1994 in five areas in the forest belt in the mid-west of côte d'ivoire. the authors compare the feeding habits of the vector in these different foci. this analysis is aimed at determining if there is any relationship between the feeding pattern of tsetse-flies and the prevalence rates of hat. the feeding pattern was measured ...	2000	10672209
characterisation of the loci encoding the glutamic acid and alanine rich protein of trypanosoma congolense.	we have characterised the organisation of genes encoding the glutamate and alanine rich protein (garp) surface coat of the procyclic and epimastigote stages of trypanosoma congolense in the tsetse fly. the garp genes are arranged at two, possibly physically linked, loci, one of which exhibits allelic variation. one locus contains a single garp gene, whilst both alleles of the other have a large tandem array of polycistronically transcribed garp genes. sequence analysis has revealed that there ar ...	2000	10693750
a newly developed odour-baited "h trap" for the live collection of glossina brevipalpis and glossina austeni (diptera: glossinidae) in south africa.	a new trap, named the "h trap", was developed at hellsgate tsetse research station in south africa for the simultaneous collection of live glossina brevipalpis newstead and glossina austeni newstead. its design followed an evaluation of the responses of the two species towards traps that are used elsewhere in africa for the collection of other tsetse fly species. these traps were found at hellsgate to be unsuitable for capturing both g. brevipalpis and g. austeni. some new trap designs and many ...	2000	10843318
a family of genes with growth factor and adenosine deaminase similarity are preferentially expressed in the salivary glands of glossina m. morsitans.	a cdna library constructed from salivary glands of tsetse fly, glossina morsitans morsitans (diptera: glossinidae), was differentially screened, and two related full-length cdnas were molecularly characterized: tsetse salivary growth factor, tsgf-1 and tsgf-2. the cdnas encode for open reading frames (orfs) of 494 and 506aa, respectively, and display an overall 45% amino acid identity and 61% similarity to one another. both genes are preferentially expressed in the salivary glands of male and fe ...	2000	10903440
microsatellite dna markers reveal genetic differentiation among populations of glossina palpalis gambiensis collected in the agro-pastoral zone of sideradougou, burkina faso.	intraspecific genetic variability of glossina palpalis gambiensis in the area of sideradougou, burkina faso, was studied using polymorphic microsatellite dna markers. this genetic study was combined with other epidemiological information on the same tsetse: bloodmeal identification, dissection of tsetse and molecular characterization of the trypanosomes detected. there was significant genetic differentiation among flies caught only a few kilometers apart, within the same riverine habitat. these ...	2000	10971721
[spatial distribution and bloodmeal preferences of glossina palpalis palpalis in the forest focus of zoukougbeu (ivory coast). epidemiological consequences].	in the sleeping sickness focus of zoukougbeu (côte d'ivoire), in the cropping areas which are favourable for disease transmission, more than a quarter of the flies collected were found to have fed on domestic pigs. the sites where glossina palpalis palpalis was caught fed on these animals were concordant with the sites where the patients were present. these results might indicate that in zoukougbeu, but perhaps also in other sleeping sickness foci, the pig could play an active role in disease tr ...	2000	11031763
systematic relationships and cospeciation of bacterial endosymbionts and their carpenter ant host species: proposal of the new taxon candidatus blochmannia gen. nov.	the systematic relationships of intracellular bacteria of 13 camponotus species (carpenter ants) from america and europe were compared to those of their hosts. phylogenetic trees of the bacteria and the ants were based on 16s rdna (rrs) gene sequences and mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase subunit i (coi) gene sequences, respectively. the bacterial endosymbionts of camponotus spp. form a distinct lineage in the y-subclass of the proteobacteria. the taxa most closely related to these bacteria are e ...	2000	11034499
chalcone, acyl hydrazide, and related amides kill cultured trypanosoma brucei brucei.	protozoan parasites of the genus trypanosoma cause disease in a wide range of mammalian hosts. trypanosoma brucei brucei, transmitted by tsetse fly to cattle, causes a disease (nagana) of great economic importance in parts of africa. t. b. brucei also serves as a model for related trypanosoma species, which cause human sleeping sickness.	2000	11055585
transport of methionine in trypanosoma brucei brucei.	african trypanosomes live free in the bloodstream and central nervous system of mammalian hosts and also within the midgut of the tsetse fly vectors which transmit them. the parasite plasma membrane represents the interface between both hosts and parasite, and trypanosomes accumulate many essential metabolites via specific transport processes. l-methionine uptake by procyclic and bloodstream forms of trypanosoma brucei has been measured and shown to be mediated by a transporter presenting simila ...	2000	11163438
the major cell surface glycoprotein procyclin is a receptor for induction of a novel form of cell death in african trypanosomes in vitro.	bloodstream forms (bsf) and procyclic culture forms (pcf) of african trypanosomes were incubated with a variety of lectins in vitro. cessation of cell division and profound morphological changes were seen in procyclic forms but not in bsf after incubation with concanavalin a (con a), wheat germ agglutinin and ricinus communis agglutinin. these lectins caused the trypanosomes to cease division, become round and increase dramatically in size, the latter being partially attributable to the formatio ...	2000	11163441
the surface coat of procyclic trypanosoma brucei: programmed expression and proteolytic cleavage of procyclin in the tsetse fly.	trypanosoma brucei, the protozoan parasite causing sleeping sickness, is transmitted by a tsetse fly vector. when the tsetse takes a blood meal from an infected human, it ingests bloodstream form trypanosomes that quickly differentiate into procyclic forms within the fly's midgut. during this process, the parasite loses the 10(7) molecules of variant surface glycoprotein that formed its surface coat, and it develops a new coat composed of several million procyclin molecules. procyclins, the prod ...	2001	11171982
molecular characterization of two serine proteases expressed in gut tissue of the african trypanosome vector, glossina morsitans morsitans.	serine proteases are major insect gut enzymes involved in digestion of dietary proteins, and in addition they have been implicated in the process of pathogen establishment in several vector insects. the medically important vector, tsetse fly (diptera:glossinidiae), is involved in the transmission of african trypanosomes, which cause devastating diseases in animals and humans. both the male and female tsetse can transmit trypanosomes and both are strict bloodfeeders throughout all stages of their ...	2001	11240636
characterization of genes expressed in the salivary glands of the tsetse fly, glossina morsitans morsitans.	salivary gland products of haematophogous insects including tsetse flies (diptera: glossinidia) are involved in antihaemostasis to allow for efficient blood feeding. in addition, salivary products of tsetse are thought to indirectly support the metacyclogenesis and eventual transmission of the african trypanosome protozoan parasites to their mammalian hosts. we have previously characterized the major anticoagulant, tsetse thrombin inhibitor (tti), from salivary extracts, and described molecular ...	2001	11240638
the effect of temperature and saturation deficit on mortality in populations of male glossina m. morsitans (diptera: glossinidae) in zimbabwe and tanzania.	the methods of bailey and of jolly and seber were used to provide maximum likelihood estimates of population parameters for jackson's classical mark-recapture experiments on males of the tsetse fly glossina m. morsitans westwood. these were compared with jolly-seber (j-s) estimates for the same fly from more recent work on antelope island, lake kariba, zimbabwe. the bailey estimates of birth and death rates and total population size had markedly lower variances than jackson's originals. both set ...	2001	11260721
microsatellite polymorphism in tsetse flies (diptera: glossinidae).	in sub-saharan africa, tsetse flies are the vectors of trypanosomes, the causative agents of sleeping sickness in humans and nagana in animals. certain wild populations of the palpalis group exhibit intraspecific variation and are suspect of manifest differences in vectorial capacity. the current study reports the identification of 13 polymorphic microsatellite loci from glossina palpalis palpalis robinean-desvoidy. the majority of these markers amplify corresponding loci from the related specie ...	2001	11372961
a novel application of gene arrays: escherichia coli array provides insight into the biology of the obligate endosymbiont of tsetse flies.	symbiotic associations with microorganisms are pivotal in many insects. yet, the functional roles of obligate symbionts have been difficult to study because it has not been possible to cultivate these organisms in vitro. the medically important tsetse fly (diptera: glossinidae) relies on its obligate endosymbiont, wigglesworthia glossinidia, a member of the enterobacteriaceae, closely related to escherichia coli, for fertility and possibly nutrition. we show here that the intracellular wiggleswo ...	2001	11404467
the changing distribution of two riverine tsetse flies over 15 years in an increasingly cultivated area of burkina faso.	changes in the distribution of two riverine tsetse flies, glossina tachinoides westwood and glossina palpalis gambiensis vanderplank are described in an agro-pastoral area of burkina faso subject to increasing human population pressure and land use change. two similar entomological surveys (one trap every 100 m, 120 km of river) were conducted in 1981 and 1996. changes in tsetse distribution were compared to land use changes through high resolution remote sensing imagery (landsat, spot). there w ...	2001	11415469
a density-dependent model with reinvasion for estimating tsetse fly populations (diptera: glossinidae) through trapping.	a simple density-dependent reinvasion model is described and used to estimate tsetse fly populations on the basis of removal trapping experiments. the model was tested on glossina fuscipes fuscipes newstead in the central african republic and g. palpalis palpalis (robineau-desvoidy) in the republic of congo (brazzaville). the density-dependence is modelled by postulating that the inflow of flies each day is proportional to the deficit relative to the equilibrium population. non-linear least squa ...	2001	11415471
spatial and temporal distribution of tsetse fly trap catches at nguruman, southwest kenya.	spatial and temporal dynamics of rapidly growing populations of tsetse flies at nguruman, southwest kenya during 1993-1995, were investigated, following six years of intensive population suppression with traps over a c. 100 km2 area. the two tsetse species present were randomly distributed in the short rainy season, but were aggregated in the dry and long rainy seasons. maximum temperature was the dominant weather factor associated with the degree of aggregation. trends in catches at 20 fixed si ...	2001	11415476
procyclins, proteases and proteomics: dissecting trypanosomes in the tsetse fly.	the forms of african trypanosomes that live in tsetse fly vectors are coated with lipid-anchored proteins and glycoproteins known collectively as procyclins. procyclins are expressed during development in the fly in a multiplicity of isoforms yet their functions remain unknown. recent studies involving a multidisciplinary synthesis of tsetse biology, immunochemistry, biological chemistry and mass spectrometry have yielded much new information about procyclins, which could now provide an unparall ...	2001	11435080
1-octen-3-ol isolated from bont ticks attracts amblyomma variegatum.	volatiles from various life-stages of the bont ticks amblyomma variegatum and a. hebraeum were collected by using solid-phase microfibers and charcoal traps. an octenol isomer was found to be a major constituent of most of the tick material sampled and was identified as 1-octen-3-ol by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and by using antenna of the tsetse fly glossina brevipalpis in gas chromatography-linked antennogram detection. release of this compound increased during molt to adulthood and ...	2001	11441439
genome size determination and coding capacity of sodalis glossinidius, an enteric symbiont of tsetse flies, as revealed by hybridization to escherichia coli gene arrays.	recent molecular characterization of various microbial genomes has revealed differences in genome size and coding capacity between obligate symbionts and intracellular pathogens versus free-living organisms. multiple symbiotic microorganisms have evolved with tsetse fly, the vector of african trypanosomes, over long evolutionary times. although these symbionts are indispensable for tsetse fecundity, the biochemical and molecular basis of their functional significance is unknown. here, we report ...	2001	11443086
deletion of a novel protein kinase with px and fyve-related domains increases the rate of differentiation of trypanosoma brucei.	growth control of african trypanosomes in the mammalian host is coupled to differentiation of a non-dividing life cycle stage, the stumpy bloodstream form. we show that a protein kinase with novel domain architecture is important for growth regulation. zinc finger kinase (zfk) has a kinase domain related to rac and s6 kinases flanked by a fyve-related zinc finger and a phox (px) homology domain. to investigate the function of the kinase during cyclical development, a stable transformation proced ...	2001	11454198
antigenic variation in trypanosomes: enhanced phenotypic variation in a eukaryotic parasite.	african trypanosomes are unicellular, eukaryotic parasites that live extracellularly in a wide range of mammals, including humans. they have a surface coat, composed of variant surface glycoprotein (vsg), which probably is essential and acts as a defence against general innate immunity and against acquired immunity directed at invariant surface antigens. in effect, the vsg is the only antigen that the host can target, and each trypanosome expresses only one vsg. to counter specific antibodies ag ...	2001	11461029
effect of gamma-irradiation on serum samples on the diagnostic performance of elisa methods for the detection of trypanosomal antibodies.	the study investigated the effect of gamma-irradiation on bovine serum samples on the ability of enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (elisa) methods to detect trypanosomal antibodies. the serum samples were analysed using two standardised indirect elisa systems. higher measurement values were observed for most gamma-irradiated antibody positive and negative test samples. using cut-off points, determined from the analysis of a non-irradiated trypanosomal antibody-negative population, the gamma-irra ...	2001	11470177
the origins of a new trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense sleeping sickness outbreak in eastern uganda.	sleeping sickness, caused by two trypanosome subspecies, trypanosoma brucei gambiense and trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense, is a parasitic disease transmitted by the tsetse fly in sub-saharan africa. we report on a recent outbreak of t b rhodesiense sleeping sickness outside the established south-east ugandan focus, in soroti district where the disease had previously been absent. soroti district has been the subject of large-scale livestock restocking activities and, because domestic cattle are im ...	2001	11530149
multiple procyclin isoforms are expressed differentially during the development of insect forms of trypanosoma brucei.	transmission of trypanosoma brucei by the tsetse fly entails several rounds of differentiation as the parasite migrates through the digestive tract to the salivary glands of its vector. differentiation of the bloodstream to the procyclic form in the fly midgut is accompanied by the synthesis of a new coat consisting of ep and gpeet procyclins. there are three closely related ep isoforms, two of which (ep1 and ep3) contain n-glycans. to identify the individual ep isoforms that are expressed early ...	2001	11575917
a contribution towards simplifying area-wide tsetse surveys using medium resolution meteorological satellite data.	a raster or grid-based geographic information system with data on tsetse, trypanosomiasis, animal production, agriculture and land use has recently been developed in togo. the area-wide sampling of tsetse fly, aided by satellite imagery, is the subject of two separate papers. this paper follows on a first paper, published in this journal, describing the generation of digital tsetse distribution and abundance maps and how these accord with the local climatic and agro-ecological setting. such maps ...	2001	11583596
a trypanosome structure involved in transmitting cytoplasmic information during cell division.	african trypanosomes are protozoan parasites that cause sleeping sickness in humans through a tsetse fly vector. the procyclic form of trypanosoma brucei has a single, attached flagellum that describes a helical path along the cell from posterior to anterior. during division, a specific flagellum-flagellum connection is elaborated between the new and old flagellum. this connector was present only during cell duplication and was found to be involved in the replication of the helical cell pattern ...	2001	11641501
degradation of the unstable ep1 mrna in trypanosoma brucei involves initial destruction of the 3'-untranslated region.	kinetoplastid protozoa regulate their gene expression primarily through control of mrna degradation and translation. we describe here the degradation of three reporter mrnas in trypanosoma brucei. one mrna had the 3'-untranslated region (3'-utr) from the developmentally regulated ep1 mrna, which is abundant in the procyclic (tsetse fly) form of the parasite but is almost undetectable in the bloodstream form. this untranslated region includes a 26 nt u-rich sequence that causes extreme rna instab ...	2001	11713321
characterization of the adenosine deaminase-related growth factor (adgf) gene family in drosophila.	a novel family of growth factors, with sequence similarity to adenosine deaminase, has been identified in various organisms including flesh fly, tsetse fly, sand fly, mollusk and human. the human homologue, cecr1, is a candidate gene for the genetic disorder cat eye syndrome. here, we describe six members of this growth factor family in drosophila and two in vertebrates. the six drosophila genes, named adenosine deaminase-related growth factors (adgf), are found at three different chromosomal lo ...	2001	11738815
glycosylphosphatidylinositol-anchored surface molecules of trypanosoma congolense insect forms are developmentally regulated in the tsetse fly.	procyclic culture forms of trypanosoma congolense have been shown to express a glutamic acid/alanine-rich protein (garp) on their surface. by labelling t. congolense procyclic culture forms with glycosylphosphatidylinositol (gpi) precursors, we show that garp is bound to the membrane by a gpi anchor and demonstrate the presence of two additional gpi-anchored surface molecules of 24-34 and 58 kda that are abundantly expressed. the 24-34 kda molecule, which is recognised by monoclonal antibodies t ...	2002	11755181
[the epidemiology of human african trypanosomiasis: a complex multifactorial history].	sleeping sickness has long been known from descriptions by arab merchants and slave traders. however it was not until 1901 that forbes discovered the offending agent and 1903 that bruce described the role of the tsetse fly. the basic epidemiological transmission cycle was described less than 10 years later. although the main outline of the original model can still be considered as sound, subsequent research has greatly expanded our knowledge. molecular biology has identified different parasites ...	2001	11803821
principles of area-wide integrated tsetse fly control using the sterile insect technique.	the tsetse fly and the disease trypanosomosis it transmits, is one of the most severe medical and veterinary problems in africa, infecting around 50,000 people every year and preventing the development of sustainable and productive agricultural systems. the most efficient way to contain the disease is by the management of entire populations of the vector (area-wide approach) using a combination of several control methods in an integrated pest management campaign. a very powerful method for integ ...	2001	11803833
population structure of the tsetse fly glossina pallidipes estimated by allozyme, microsatellite and mitochondrial gene diversities.	diversities at nuclear and mitochondrial loci were examined in eleven natural populations of glossina pallidipes from east and southern africa. alleles in each class of loci are assumed to be selectively neutral. allozyme gene diversities (heterozygosities) averaged over eight loci were 0.146 among seven kenya populations and 0.201 among four southern african populations. microsatellite diversity averaged over three loci was 0.250 in kenya and only 0.218 in southern africa. mitochondrial diversi ...	2002	11841501
molecular characterization of three gut genes from glossina morsitans morsitans: cathepsin b, zinc-metalloprotease and zinc-carboxypeptidase.	insect gut enzymes are involved in digestion of dietary proteins. additionally, these enzymes have been implicated in the process of pathogen establishment in several insects including the tsetse fly (diptera:glossinidae), which is the vector for african trypanosomes. both the male and female tsetse can transmit trypanosomes and are strict blood feeders during all stages of their development. here, we describe the molecular characterization of three gut genes: cathepsin b (gmcatb), zinc-metallop ...	2002	11841503
[african trypanosomiasis--a rare imported disease].	this year at least nine cases of african trypanosomiasis have occurred among europeans visiting the serengeti park in tanzania. one of them was a 26-year-old norwegian woman who was bitten by a tsetse fly in her face. she developed fever, nausea and other symptoms, and had thrombocytopenia and pathological liver values; trypanosoma parasites were demonstrated in her blood. the recommended drug, suramin, was not readily available in tanzania and she was transported to oslo. the diagnosis was conf ...	2002	11851292
[trypanosomiasis--a real risk for tourists visiting national parks in tanzania].	african sleeping sickness is no longer a rare disease among tourists visiting national parks in tanzania. the disease is caused by a parasite, trypanosoma brucei, which is transmitted by the tsetse fly. two species infect humans: trypanosoma brucci gambiense and trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense; the last form is re-emerging in parts of africa. untreated this disease carries a mortality of nearly 100%. this article describes a case of african sleeping sickness in a tourist visiting tanzania, which ...	2002	11851293
the cell biology of parasitism in trypanosoma brucei: insights and drug targets from genomic approaches?	the african trypanosome, trypanosoma brucei exhibits a complex, digenetic life cycle that alternates between the tsetse fly vector and the mammalian host. the life cycle is characterised by a complex series of cell type differentiations and variations in metabolism. in addition the trypanosome exhibits a particular cell biology that has become adapted for its role as a parasite. this article places some of these areas in a frame-work that considers the role of cellular processes in parasitism. i ...	2002	11860364
chemotherapy of human african trypanosomiasis.	human african trypanosomiasis or sleeping sickness is resurgent [1,2]. the disease is caused by subspecies of the parasitic haemoflagellate, trypanosoma brucei. infection starts with the bite of an infected tsetse fly (glossina spp.). parasites move from the site of infection to the draining lymphatic vessels and blood stream. the parasites proliferate within the bloodstream and later invade other tissues including the central nervous system. once they have established themselves within the cns, ...	2002	11860365
pan african group takes lead against the tsetse fly.		2002	11879881