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complete mitochondrial genome of cervus elaphus songaricus (cetartiodactyla: cervinae) and a phylogenetic analysis with related species.complete mitochondrial genome of tianshan wapiti, cervus elaphus songaricus, is 16,419 bp in length and contains 13 protein-coding genes, 2 rrna genes, 22 trna genes and 1 control region. the phylogenetic trees were reconstructed with the concatenated nucleotide sequences of the 13 protein-coding genes using maximum parsimony (mp) and bayesian inference (bi) methods. mp and bi phylogenetic trees here showed an identical tree topology. the monopoly of red deer, wapiti and sika deer was well suppo ...201624725059
genotyping of anaplasma phagocytophilum strains from poland for selected genes.anaplasma phagocytophilum is a veterinary and medical tick-borne pathogen of vertebrates which invades granulocytes. the potential reservoirs of anaplasma include game animals and small mammals. the aim ofthis study was to gain insight into the variability ofnucleotide sequences of ribosomal and selected protein-coding genes (anka, msp4 and the groesl heat-shock protein operon) present in isolates of a. phagocytophilum collected from wild ruminants (cervus elaphus and capreolus capreolus) in pol ...201424745148
red deer synchronise their activity with close neighbours.models of collective animal behaviour frequently make assumptions about the effects of neighbours on the behaviour of focal individuals, but these assumptions are rarely tested. one such set of assumptions is that the switch between active and inactive behaviour seen in herding animals is influenced by the activity of close neighbours, where neighbouring animals show a higher degree of behavioural synchrony than would be expected by chance. we tested this assumption by observing the simultaneous ...201424765578
toxoplasma gondii in sympatric wild herbivores and carnivores: epidemiology of infection in the western alps.toxoplasma gondii is an apicomplexan parasite that is able to infect almost all warm blooded animals. in europe, the domestic cat is the main definitive host. worldwide, 6 billion people are infected with this parasite. the goal of our research is to evaluate the prevalence of t. gondii infection in wild animals from a previously unsampled area in northern italy where 0.1% of women seroconvert during pregnancy each year.201424766665
origin of dermacentor albipictus (acari: ixodidae) on elk in the yukon, canada.winter ticks (dermacentor albipictus) on elk (cervus elaphus canadensis) have recently increased in numbers in the yukon, canada, potentially posing risks to other indigenous host species in the region. to evaluate the regional source of winter ticks in the yukon, we sequenced one nuclear (its-2) and two mitochondrial (16srrna and coi) genes, and genotyped 14 microsatellite loci from 483 winter tick specimens collected across north america. we analyzed genetic variation across the geographic and ...201424779459
toxic (pb, cd, hg) and essential (fe, cu, zn, mn) metal content of liver tissue of some domestic and bush animals in ghana.accumulation of toxic metals in liver, a rich natural source of essential elements, can present health risks to regular consumers of liver. a total of 35 fresh liver samples of cow, sheep, goat, pig, grass-cutter (thryonomys swinderianus), giant rat (cricetomys gambianus), red deer (cervus elaphus), chicken and antelope (antilocapra americana) were obtained from three different markets in accra and kumasi, ghana. samples were analyzed using atomic absorption spectrometry and an automatic mercury ...200824784805
antimicrobial resistant bacteria in wild mammals and birds: a coincidence or cause for concern?the emergence and dissemination of antimicrobial resistance (amr) is a growing concern to public and animal health. the contribution attributable to wildlife remains unclear. in this study two unrelated wildlife species herring gulls (larus argentatus) and a hybrid deer (cervus elaphus x cervus nippon) were investigated for the presence of escherichia coli expressing an amr phenotype.201424795805
efficacy of a low-dosage combination of butorphanol, azaperone, and medetomidine (bam) to immobilize rocky mountain elk.we compared dosages of a combination of sedatives, which included butorphanol tartrate, azaperone tartrate, and medetomidine hcl (bam) in captive adult rocky mountain elk (cervus elaphus nelsoni). all three bam dosages (low, medium, and high) effectively immobilized elk and produced an adequate level of sedation in all subjects. induction times were similar among the three groups (mean ± sd: low=6.9 ± 1.1 min; medium=6.3 ± 0.9 min; high=4.7 ± 1.3 min). most elk became hypoxemic regardless of bam ...201424807358
cross-amplification of nonspecific microsatellites markers: a useful tool to study endangered/vulnerable species of southern andes deer.thirty-nine microsatellite loci that are highly conserved in red deer, sika deer, reindeer, soay sheep, and other artiodactyls were tested in two vulnerable and endangered neotropical deer (pudu: pudu puda and huemul: hippocamelus bisulcus) with the aim of producing a standardized set of markers that can be used successfully in noninvasive samples from these species. we also compared these nonspecific loci against eight polymorphic loci that were recently developed for huemul to determine whethe ...201424841651
statistical evaluation of a commercial neospora caninum competitive elisa in the absence of a gold standard: application to wild elk (cervus elaphus) in alberta.neospora caninum is an important abortive agent of domestic ruminants, but few diagnostic tools are available to reliably assess the exposure of wild cervid species such as elk (cervus elaphus) to this pathogen, which limits our ability to understand their role in the life cycle of this parasite. in the absence of a gold standard test or panels of samples from individuals of known infection status, classical laboratory-based validation methods are not applicable. however, there are a number of s ...201424861013
characterization of rhodococcus equi isolates from submaxillary lymph nodes of wild boars (sus scrofa), red deer (cervus elaphus) and roe deer (capreolus capreolus).rhodococcus equi is a soil saprophyte and an opportunistic pathogen causing infections in animals, and rarely in humans. the presence of r. equi in tissues and faeces of some wild animal species was demonstrated previously. in this study we characterized r. equi isolates from submaxillary lymph nodes of free-living wild boars (n=23), red deer (n=2) and roe deer (n=2). this is the first description of r. equi strains isolated from tissues of the cervidae. all isolates were initially recognized as ...201424878324
molecular identification of theileria parasites of northwestern chinese cervidae.theileria and babesia protozoan parasites are transmitted mainly by tick vectors. these parasites cause heavy economic losses to the live-stock industry, as well as affecting the health of wild animals in parasite-endemic areas. identification of infectious agents in wild animals is not only crucial for species preservation, but also provides valuable information on parasite epidemiology. here, we conducted a molecular surveillance study in northwestern china to assess the prevalence of blood pa ...201424885179
analyzing stereotypy in red deer alarm postures by means of informational redundancy.the variability in duration and form or red deer (cervus elaphus ) alarm postures was studied. 18 variables of form were measured from photographic sequences and stereotypy calculated by means of informational redundancy (ir). comparisons between stereotypy estimates obtained by ir and those provided by the widely used coefficient of variation proved to match each other well. durations showed less stereotypy than configurational variables as measured by coefficient of variation. some implication ...198724896867
spatial organization of female groups in red deer (cervus elaphus l.).the spatial organization of female groups in red deer was studied in the periods before and after the rut, in a study area located in the central sierra morena (córdoba, spain). the study was carried out in terms of age-sex classes, and was based on direct observation and video recording. movement order proved to be linear, and highlighted the role of the mature hind as group leader and potential group protector. two tendencies were found in the calf: to place itself behind the adult female, and ...198724897255
carriage of staphylococcus aureus by free-living wild animals in spain.the presence of methicillin-susceptible staphylococcus aureus (mssa) was analyzed in different free-living wild animals to assess the genetic diversity and predominant genotypes on each animal species. samples were taken from the skin and/or nares, and isolates were characterized by spa typing, multilocus sequence typing (mlst) and antimicrobial susceptibility testing. the proportion of mssa carriers were 5.00, 22.93, 19.78, and 17.67% in eurasian griffon vulture, iberian ibex, red deer, and wil ...201424907325
effect of pelvic suspension on the instrumental meat quality characteristics of red deer (cervus elaphus) and fallow deer (dama dama) venison.the effect of pelvic and achilles tendon suspension of red and fallow deer carcasses on meat quality parameters were compared. venison was evaluated from red deer stags (n=14), bucks (n=14) and fallow deer does (n=10) between 12 and 36months old. immediately after slaughter, carcasses were split down the dorsal midline and assigned to one of the two hanging methods and ph and core body temperature measured. twenty-four hours post-slaughter muscles were excised. venison from fallow deer and red d ...201424922603
cardiac responses in alarmed red deer calves.radio transmitters were used to record the ecg signals of young red deer calves (cervus elaphus) when they were exposed to various stimuli which elicited the immobility or "freezing" response. when the calves were exposed to stimuli likely to occur in the deer's natural habitat, the heart rate decreased by 25 to 85% of the pre-exposure rate. the calves displayed a more pronounced bradycardia during their first days of life than at a later age. there are also indications that repeated exposure to ...197924924982
babesia spp. in european wild ruminant species: parasite diversity and risk factors for infection.babesia are tick-borne parasites that are increasingly considered as a threat to animal and public health. we aimed to assess the role of european free-ranging wild ruminants as maintenance mammalian hosts for babesia species and to determine risk factors for infection. edta blood was collected from 222 roe deer (capreolus c. capreolus), 231 red deer (cervus e. elaphus), 267 alpine chamois (rupicapra r. rupicapra) and 264 alpine ibex (capra i. ibex) from all over switzerland and analysed by pcr ...201424925474
the date of antler casting, age and social hierarchy relationships in the red deer stag.a five-year observation of social interactions and the antler cycle of the stag was performed in the "white" red deer population in the žehušice game reserve, czechoslovakia. the results indicate that the antler casting time of individual stags was dependent primarily on social status and that the influence of age was of secondary importance. the more dominant the stag, the earlier antler casting occurred. the stags of higher social status also tended to shed velvet earlier, although this relati ...198024925506
long-term dynamics of bluetongue virus in wild ruminants: relationship with outbreaks in livestock in spain, 2006-2011.wild and domestic ruminants are susceptible to bluetongue virus (btv) infection. three btv serotypes (btv-4, btv-1 and btv-8) have been detected in spain in the last decade. even though control strategies have been applied to livestock, btv circulation has been frequently detected in wild ruminant populations in spain. the aim of the present study is to assess the role for wild ruminants in maintaining btv after the vaccination programs in livestock in mainland spain. a total of 931 out 1,914 (4 ...201424940879
positioning the red deer (cervus elaphus) hunted by the tyrolean iceman into a mitochondrial dna phylogeny.in the last years several phylogeographic studies of both extant and extinct red deer populations have been conducted. three distinct mitochondrial lineages (western, eastern and north-african/sardinian) have been identified reflecting different glacial refugia and postglacial recolonisation processes. however, little is known about the genetics of the alpine populations and no mitochondrial dna sequences from alpine archaeological specimens are available. here we provide the first mitochondrial ...201424988290
bioserotypes and virulence markers of y. enterocolitica strains isolated from roe deer (capreolus capreolus) and red deer (cervus elaphus).free-living animals are an important environmental reservoir of pathogens dangerous for other animal species and humans. one of those is yersinia (y.) enterocolitica, the causative agent of yersiniosis--foodborne, enzootic disease, significant for public health. the purpose of the study was to identify bioserotypes and virulence markers of y enterocolitica strains isolated from roe deer (capreolus capreolus) and red deer (cervus elaphus) obtained during the 2010/2011 hunting season in north-east ...201424988858
use of acepromazine and medetomidine in combination for sedation and handling of rocky mountain elk (cervus elaphus nelsoni) and black bears (ursus americanus).we opportunistically evaluated a combination of acepromazine maleate and medetomidine hcl for use in sedating rocky mountain elk (cervus elaphus nelsoni) and black bears (ursus americanus) as an alternative to scheduled drug combinations. this combination was safe and effective with limitations inherent in its sedative rather than anesthetic properties.201425014907
ecosystem scale declines in elk recruitment and population growth with wolf colonization: a before-after-control-impact approach.the reintroduction of wolves (canis lupus) to yellowstone provided the unusual opportunity for a quasi-experimental test of the effects of wolf predation on their primary prey (elk--cervus elaphus) in a system where top-down, bottom-up, and abiotic forces on prey population dynamics were closely and consistently monitored before and after reintroduction. here, we examined data from 33 years for 12 elk population segments spread across southwestern montana and northwestern wyoming in a large scal ...201425028933
habituating to handling: factors affecting preorbital gland opening in red deer calves.the preorbital gland plays not only an olfactory role in cervids but also a visual one. opening this gland is an easy way for the calf to communicate with the mother, indicating hunger/satiety, stress, pain, fear, or excitement. this information can be also useful for farm operators to assess how fast the calves habituate to handling routines and to detect those calves that do not habituate and may suffer chronic stress in the future. thirty-one calves were subjected to 2 consecutive experiments ...201425035243
spent mushroom substrate influences elk (cervus elaphus canadensis) hematological and serum biochemical parameters.the objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of spent mushroom substrate (sms) derived from pleurotus eryngii on the hematological and biochemical blood properties of elk. a total of 18, two and three-year-old elk were fed three different levels of sms (0, 15 and 20%) in a corn-wheat bran diet for 80 days. the results indicated significantly high levels of blood monocytes, hemoglobin (hb), and hematocrit (hct) in elk fed 15% or 20% sms (p<0.05) compared to control animals. serum blood ...201225049569
red deer antler extract accelerates hair growth by stimulating expression of insulin-like growth factor i in full-thickness wound healing rat model.in order to investigate and evaluate the effects of red deer antlers on hair growth in the full-thickness wound healing model, sprague-dawley rats were given incision wounds through the full thickness of their dorsal skin and deer antler was applied for 40 days. at specified intervals thereafter (4, 8, 16, 32 and 40 days), the animals were sacrificed and the wound site skins were excised, processed, and sectioned. at post-injury days 16, 32 and 40, longer and more active new hair appeared around ...201225049617
a new way to integrate selection when both demography and selection gradients vary over time.when both selection and demography vary over time, how can the long-run expected strength of selection on quantitative traits be measured? there are two basic steps in the proposed new analysis: one relates trait values to fitness components and the other relates fitness components to total fitness. we used one population projection matrix for each state of the environment together with a model of environmental dynamics, defining total fitness as the stochastic growth rate. we multiplied environ ...201025089083
identification of velvet antler by random amplified polymorphism dna combined with non-gel sieving capillary electrophoresis.mitochondrial dna of velvet antler was amplified with random amplified polymorphic dna (rapd) technique and the pcr products were detected with non-gel sieving capillary electrophoresis to establish a rapd-hpce method used for identifying the authenticity of velvet antler or it counterfeits. factors that could affect the pcr amplification and capillary electrophoresis were optimized. under the optimized conditions, namely, 20 mmol l(-1) nah2po4-na2hpo4-2 mmol l(-1) edta buffer solution [0.8% (w/ ...201625103424
spatio-temporal variability of bovine tuberculosis eradication in spain (2006-2011).in this study we analyzed the space-time variation of the risk of bovine tuberculosis (btb) in cattle between 2006 and 2011. the results indicated that at country level, there were no significant temporal changes between years, but, at county level btb evolution was more heterogeneous. in some counties, between some years, the prevalence and the incidence of the disease was higher as compared to the global rate in the rest of the counties of spain. the analysis of potential risk factors indicate ...201425113586
blood feeding on large grazers affects the transmission of borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato by ixodes ricinus.the presence of ixodes ricinus and their associated borrelia infections on large grazers was investigated. carcases of freshly shot red deer, mouflon and wild boar were examined for the presence of any stage of i. ricinus. questing ticks were collected from locations where red deer and wild boar are known to occur. presence of borrelia burgdorferi s.l. dna was examined in a fraction of the collected ticks. larvae, nymphs and adult ticks were found on the three large grazers. red deer had the hig ...201425113977
response of red deer stags (cervus elaphus) to playback of harsh versus common roars.red deer stags (cervus elaphus) give two distinct types of roars during the breeding season, the "common roar" and the "harsh roar." harsh roars are more frequent during contexts of intense competition, and characterized by a set of features that increase their perceptual salience, suggesting that they signal heightened arousal. while common roars have been shown to encode size information and mediate both male competition and female choice, to our knowledge, the specific function of harsh roars ...201425119193
novel combinations of nalbuphine and medetomidine for wildlife immobilization.we formulated novel drug combinations of nalbuphine hcl and medetomidine hcl (nalmed), with or without azaperone tartrate, for use in immobilizing rocky mountain elk (cervus elaphus nelsoni) and potentially for other wildlife species. using the lowest tested nalbuphine dose (0.3 mg/kg) that produced sedation in elk, we initially evaluated a combination of nalbuphine, medetomidine, and azaperone (nalmed-a) for immobilizing adult elk. based on initial success, we then conducted follow-up trials to ...201425121404
early life expenditure in sexual competition is associated with increased reproductive senescence in male red deer.the evolutionary theories of senescence predict that investment in reproduction in early life should come at the cost of reduced somatic maintenance, and thus earlier or more rapid senescence. there is now growing support for such trade-offs in wild vertebrates, but these exclusively come from females. here, we test this prediction in male red deer (cervus elaphus) using detailed longitudinal data collected over a 40-year field study. we show that males which had larger harems and thereby alloca ...201425122226
identity of rumen fluke in deer.as evidence is growing that in many temperate areas paramphistome infections are becoming more common and widespread, this study was undertaken to determine the role of deer as reservoirs for rumen fluke infections in livestock. a total of 144 deer faecal samples (88 from fallow deer, 32 from red deer and 24 samples from sika, sika/red deer hybrids) were screened for the presence of fluke eggs. based on the its-2 rdna locus plus flanking 5.8s and 28s sequences (its-2+), fluke eggs were identifie ...201425127736
evaluation of microbial communities and symbionts in ixodes ricinus and ungulate hosts (cervus elaphus and ovis aries) from shared habitats on the west coast of norway.recent reports suggest a potential for transmission of a newly discovered rickettsial endosymbiont, midichloria mitochondrii, to animals and humans from feeding ticks (ixodes ricinus). using molecular methods; i. ricinus, sheep and red deer in anaplasma phagocytophilum-endemic areas of norway, were examined to see if they were infected by m. mitochondrii or related organisms like wolbachia pipientis and rickettsia spp. a total of 532 ticks collected from pastures, 76 blood samples from grazing l ...201425132534
isolation and characterization of babesia pecorum sp. nov. from farmed red deer (cervus elaphus).the diversity of babesia species infecting cervids in parts of central and southern spain was analyzed by collecting blood from farmed red deer (cervus elaphus). babesia sp. was isolated in vitro from two red deer herds in cádiz and ciudad real. the number of babesia sp. carriers differed between the two herds: 36/77 in cádiz and 1/35 in ciudad real. hyalomma lusitanicum was the most prevalent tick species identified on the cádiz farm vegetation and on sampled animals, and is therefore a candida ...201425155988
enterocytozoon bieneusi in sika deer (cervus nippon) and red deer (cervus elaphus): deer specificity and zoonotic potential of its genotypes.as the most common cause of the human microsporidiosis, enterocytozoon bieneusi has been found in a wide variety of animal hosts. deers are the ruminant mammals living in a variety of biomes, and the distribution of deer species differ by geography. to understand the prevalence of natural infection of e. bieneusi in deer and to assess their epidemiological role in the transmission of microsporidiosis caused by e. bieneusi, 91 fecal specimens were collected from 86 sika deers and five red deers i ...201425185666
cadmium, lead, and mercury exposure assessment among croatian consumers of free-living game.free-living game can be an important source of dietary cadmium and lead; the question is whether exposure to these two elements is such that it might cause adverse health effects in the consumers. the aim of this study was to estimate dietary exposure to cadmium, lead, and mercury from free-living big game (fallow deer, roe deer, red deer, wild boar, and brown bear), and to mercury from small game (pheasant and hare), hunted in croatia from 1990 to 2012. the exposure assessment was based on avai ...201425205692
gps based daily activity patterns in european red deer and north american elk (cervus elaphus): indication for a weak circadian clock in ungulates.long-term tracking using global positioning systems (gps) is widely used to study vertebrate movement ecology, including fine-scale habitat selection as well as large-scale migrations. these data have the potential to provide much more information about the behavior and ecology of wild vertebrates: here we explore the potential of using gps datasets to assess timing of activity in a chronobiological context. we compared two different populations of deer (cervus elaphus), one in the netherlands ( ...201425208246
prevalence and diversity among anaplasma phagocytophilum strains originating from ixodes ricinus ticks from northwest norway.the tick-borne pathogen anaplasma phagocytophilum causes great concern for livestock farmers. tick-borne fever is a widespread disease in norway, and antibodies have been produced amongst sheep, roe deer, red deer, and moose. the main vector ixodes ricinus is found along the norwegian coastline as far north as the arctic circle. a total number of 1804 i. ricinus ticks were collected and the prevalence of the pathogen was determined by species-specific qpcr. the overall infection rate varied from ...201425215241
what attracts elk onto cattle pasture? implications for inter-species disease transmission.in southwest alberta, beef cattle and wild elk (cervus elaphus) have similar habitat preferences. understanding their inter-species contact structure is important for assessing the risk of pathogen transmission between them. these spatio-temporal patterns of interactions are shaped, in part, by range management and environmental factors affecting elk distribution. in this study, resource selection modeling was used to identify factors influencing elk presence on cattle pasture and elk selection ...201425218913
detection of invasive borrelia burgdorferi strains in north-eastern piedmont, italy.following reports of human cases of lyme borreliosis from the ossola valley, a mountainous area of piemonte, north-western italy, the abundance and altitudinal distribution of ticks, and infection of these vectors with borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato were evaluated. a total of 1662 host-seeking ixodes ricinus were collected by dragging from april to september 2011 at locations between 400 and 1450 m above sea level. additional 104 i. ricinus were collected from 35 hunted wild animals (4 chamois, ...201525220838
a new multiple-locus variable-number tandem repeat analysis reveals different clusters for anaplasma phagocytophilum circulating in domestic and wild ruminants.anaplasma phagocytophilum is a tick-borne intragranulocytic alpha-proteobacterium. it is the causative agent of tick-borne fever in ruminants, and of human granulocytic anaplasmosis in humans, two diseases which are becoming increasingly recognized in europe and the usa. however, while several molecular typing tools have been developed over the last years, few of them are appropriate for in-depth exploration of the epidemiological cycle of this bacterium. therefore we have developed a multiple-l ...201425228371
axenic in vitro culture and molecular characterization of giardia duodenalis from red deer (cervus elaphus) and thomson's gazelle (gazella thomsonii).giardia duodenalis is an ubiquitous flagellate that infects humans and many species of animals. this species exhibits great biotypic and genetic diversity. in the present study, we established short- and long-term in vitro cultures of g. duodenalis trophozoites originating from red deer and thomson's gazelle (artiodactyls) and genetically characterised the isolates by their glutamate dehydrogenase and triose phosphate isomerase gene sequences. the g. duodenalis isolates from red deer and the gaz ...201425236290
diagnostic value of fine needle aspiration cytology in testicular disorders of red deer (cervus elaphus): a case report.we used fine needle aspiration cytology (fnac) to diagnose sertoli cell-only pattern and hypospermatogenesis in an iberian red deer (cervus elaphus hispanicus). cytologic diagnosis was confirmed by histology and epididymal sperm analysis. we conclude that fnac can be an important diagnostic tool in testicular diseases of wildlife.201425248117
development of 12 novel polymorphic microsatellite markers using a next generation sequencing approach for spiculopteragia spiculoptera, a nematode parasite of deer.twelve novel polymorphic microsatellite markers were produced and characterized for spiculopteragia spiculoptera (nematoda, trichostrongyloidae) a common parasite of abomasum of roe and red deer, using next generation sequencing approach, and two multiplexes pcr were developed with these markers. polymorphism of each locus was tested in 40 individuals of this species from diverse wild populations of cervids, and was tested for crossed-amplification on four other species of nematodes, close to s. ...201425257224
retrospective study of central nervous system lesions and association with parelaphostrongylus species by histology and specific nested polymerase chain reaction in domestic camelids and wild ungulates.formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded tissues from elk (cervus elaphus), goats, and camelids with case histories and lesions suggestive of parelaphostrongylus tenuis were examined by histology to characterize lesions that could aid in definitively diagnosing p. tenuis infection. additionally, sections of paraffin-embedded tissue were used in a nested polymerase chain reaction (npcr) using parelaphostrongylus-specific primers to determine how pcr results corresponded with histological findings. histo ...201425274743
a multivariate analysis of genetic constraints to life history evolution in a wild population of red deer.evolutionary theory predicts that genetic constraints should be widespread, but empirical support for their existence is surprisingly rare. commonly applied univariate and bivariate approaches to detecting genetic constraints can underestimate their prevalence, with important aspects potentially tractable only within a multivariate framework. however, multivariate genetic analyses of data from natural populations are challenging because of modest sample sizes, incomplete pedigrees, and missing d ...201425278555
molecular identification of fascioloides magna (bassi, 1875) from red deer from south-western poland (lower silesian wilderness) on the basis of internal transcribed spacer 2 (its-2).the study was conducted in 2012-2013 on 75 fecal samples of red deer from the lower silesian wilderness which were examined to determine the prevalence of fascioloides magna in the game population. finding liver fluke eggs in a single sample which were larger in size than fasciola hepatica eggs indicated that further molecular analysis was necessarily. the partial sequence (116 bp long) of its-2 of the investigated eggs was identical to the sequences of f. magna from red deer (cervus elaphus) (g ...201425286665
gastrointestinal parasites in an isolated norwegian population of wild red deer (cervus elaphus).thirteen red deer (cervus elaphus), culled from the isolated population at the mongstad oil refinery, norway, were investigated for gastrointestinal helminths. these animals, enclosed by the refinery fence, do not have contact with other ruminants and have a high population density considering the available browsing area (1 km(2)) within the refinery site (3 km(2)). the population was estimated to be 110-130 at the time of culling.201425294401
the epidemiology of mycobacterium bovis in wild deer and feral pigs and their roles in the establishment and spread of bovine tuberculosis in new zealand wildlife.in new zealand, wild deer and feral pigs are assumed to be spillover hosts for mycobacterium bovis, and so are not targeted in efforts aimed at locally eradicating bovine tuberculosis (tb) from possums (trichosurus vulpecula), the main wildlife host. here we review the epidemiology of tb in deer and pigs, and assess whether new zealand's tb management programme could be undermined if these species sometimes achieve maintenance host status. in new zealand, tb prevalences of up to 47% have been re ...201525295713
quality attributes and composition of meat from red deer (cervus elaphus), fallow deer (dama dama) and aberdeen angus and holstein cattle (bos taurus).the consumption of venison from deer species has increased in recent years owing to presumably positive health effects. therefore a comparison was made of the physical characteristics, chemical composition and sensory attributes of meat obtained from red deer, fallow deer and aberdeen angus and holstein cattle raised under conditions typical for commercial farming practice and slaughtered at similar ages.201525298298
condition dependent effects on sex allocation and reproductive effort in sequential hermaphrodites.theory predicts the optimal timing of sex change will be the age or size at which half of an individual's expected fitness comes through reproduction as a male and half through reproduction as a female. in this way, sex allocation across the lifetime of a sequential hermaphrodite parallels the sex allocation of an outbreeding species exhibiting a 1:1 ratio of sons to daughters. however, the expectation of a 1:1 sex ratio is sensitive to variation in individual condition. if individuals within a ...201425302941
increased chromatin fragmentation and reduced acrosome integrity in spermatozoa of red deer from lead polluted sites.vertebrates are constantly exposed to a diffuse pollution of heavy metals existing in the environment, but in some cases, the proximity to emission sources like mining activity increases the risk of developing adverse effects of these pollutants. here we have studied lead (pb) levels in spermatozoa and testis, and chromatin damage and levels of endogenous antioxidant activity in spermatozoa of red deer (cervus elaphus) from a pb mining area (n=37) and a control area (n=26). deer from the pb-poll ...201525306093
wild ungulates as sentinel of btv-8 infection in piedmont areas.bluetongue caused by the genotype 8 virus (btv-8) appeared for the first time in btv free areas in northern italy in 2008. the presence of domestic animals outbreaks, abundant wild ungulates populations, and ongoing regional btv control plans, made this area interesting to evaluate the role of wild ruminants in btv-8 epidemiology. we analyzed spleen samples from hunted red deer (cervus elaphus), roe deer (capreolus capreolus) and alpine chamois (rupicapra rupicapra) by quantitative rt-pcr. sampl ...201425306211
authenticity control of game meat products--a single method to detect and quantify adulteration of fallow deer (dama dama), red deer (cervus elaphus) and sika deer (cervus nippon) by real-time pcr.this contribution presents a single real-time pcr assay allowing the determination of the deer content (the sum of fallow deer (dama dama), red deer (cervus elaphus) and sika deer (cervus nippon)) in meat products to detect food adulteration. the pcr assay does not show cross-reactivity with 20 animal species and 43 botanical species potentially contained in game meat products. the limit of quantification is 0.5% for fallow deer and red deer and 0.1% for sika deer. the deer content in meat produ ...201525306377
element concentrations and element ratios in antler and pedicle bone of yearling red deer (cervus elaphus) stags-a quantitative x-ray fluorescence study.the present study compared the concentrations of different elements (ca, p, mg, sr, ba, k, s, zn, mn) as well as ca/p, ca/mg, sr/ca, and ba/ca ratios in hard antler and pedicle bone of yearling red deer stags (n = 11). pedicles showed higher concentrations of calcium and phosphorus and a higher ca/mg ratio than antlers, while antlers exhibited higher concentrations of potassium, sulfur, and manganese as well as higher ca/p, sr/ca, and ba/ca ratios. the findings indicate that antlers are less min ...201425319008
beyond mice and men: environmental change, immunity and infections in wild ungulates.in the face of rapid environmental change, anticipating shifts in microparasite and macroparasite dynamics, including emergence events, is an enormous challenge. we argue that immunological studies in natural populations are pivotal to meeting this challenge: many components of environmental change--shifts in biotic assemblages, altered climate patterns and reduced environmental predictability--may affect host immunity. we suggest that wild ungulates can serve as model systems aiding the discove ...201525354672
isolation of digital dermatitis treponemes from hoof lesions in wild north american elk (cervus elaphus) in washington state, usa.since 2008, a large increase in the numbers of cases of lameness have been seen in wild north american elk (cervus elaphus) from washington state, usa. the most recent cases manifested as foot lesions similar both clinically and pathologically to those seen in digital dermatitis (dd) in cattle and sheep, a disease with a bacterial etiopathogenesis. to determine whether the same bacteria considered responsible for dd are associated with elk lameness, lesion samples were subjected to bacterial iso ...201425355757
sperm flagellum volume determines freezability in red deer spermatozoa.the factors affecting the inter-individual differences in sperm freezability is a major line of research in spermatology. poor sperm freezability is mainly characterised by a low sperm velocity, which in turn is associated with low fertility rates in most animal species. studies concerning the implications of sperm morphometry on freezability are quite limited, and most of them are based on sperm head size regardless of the structural parts of the flagellum, which provides sperm motility. here, ...201425380133
influence of group size on the success of wolves hunting bison.an intriguing aspect of social foraging behaviour is that large groups are often no better at capturing prey than are small groups, a pattern that has been attributed to diminished cooperation (i.e., free riding) in large groups. although this suggests the formation of large groups is unrelated to prey capture, little is known about cooperation in large groups that hunt hard-to-catch prey. here, we used direct observations of yellowstone wolves (canis lupus) hunting their most formidable prey, b ...201425389760
attachment site selection of life stages of ixodes ricinus ticks on a main large host in europe, the red deer (cervus elaphus).ticks and tick-borne diseases are increasing in many areas of europe and north america due to climate change, while land use and the increased abundances of large hosts play a more controversial role. the pattern of host selection involves a crucial component for tick abundance. while the larvae and nymphs feed on a wide range of different sized hosts, the adult female ticks require blood meal from a large host (>1 kg), typically a deer, to fulfil the life cycle. understanding the role of differ ...201425391754
effect of microsatellite selection on individual and population genetic inferences: an empirical study using cross-specific and species-specific amplifications.although whole-genome sequencing is becoming more accessible and feasible for nonmodel organisms, microsatellites have remained the markers of choice for various population and conservation genetic studies. however, the criteria for choosing microsatellites are still controversial due to ascertainment bias that may be introduced into the genetic inference. an empirical study of red deer (cervus elaphus) populations, in which cross-specific and species-specific microsatellites developed through p ...201525403329
heritability and cross-sex genetic correlations of early-life circulating testosterone levels in a wild mammal.testosterone is an important hormone that has been shown to have sex-specific links to fitness in numerous species. although testosterone concentrations vary substantially between individuals in a population, little is known about its heritable genetic basis or between-sex genetic correlations that determine its evolutionary potential. we found circulating neonatal testosterone levels to be both heritable (0.160 ± 0.064 s.e.) and correlated between the sexes (0.942 ± 0.648 s.e.) in wild red deer ...201425428929
genetic differentiation between red deer from different sample sites on the tianshan mountains (cervus elaphus), china.about 273 individuals were identified from 471 fecal samples from six different red deer populations in china. the genetic structure showed that the red deer from the western and eastern tianshan mountains was different. a total number of 12 haplotypes were defined by 97 variable sites by the control region (cr), and 10 haplotypes were defined by 34 variable sites by cytochrome b. there was no haplotype sharing between red deer populations from western and eastern tianshan mountains by the cr an ...201525431826
radiocaesium levels in game in the czech republic.the paper summarizes results of monitoring of (137)cs activities in game species roaming in the woods over the territory of the czech republic for the time interval of 1986-2012. geometric means and other statistical characteristics were estimated from the data sets on the assumption of log-normal distribution of the data from the time interval 2004-2012 where the character of data distribution had displayed no significant change. geometric means (in bq/kg) in meat were: wild boar 5.1, red deer ...025464037
genetic differentiation among 6 populations of red deer (cervus elaphus l.) in poland based on microsatellite dna polymorphism.recently, there has been considerable interest in genetic differentiation in the cervidae family. a common tool used to determine genetic variation in different species, breeds and populations is dna analysis, which allows for direct determination of the differences and changes within a group of animals. because the analysis of microsatellite polymorphism in different cervidae populations revealed considerable genetic variability in individual populations, it was important to test a set of marke ...201425475981
pre-orbital gland opening during aggressive interactions in rusa deer (rusa timorensis).the opening of the preorbital gland in cervids has a visual meaning and is frequently associated with agonistic and/or stress related situations. apart from in red deer, this behaviour has scarcely been studied and the range of situations when it may occur remains unclear. in this study we report the unusual case of preorbital gland opening in rusa deer, rusa timorensis, associated to direct aggressive agonistic interaction (biting/kicking) between two adult hinds. this case observed in tierpark ...201525481309
spatial-temporal trends and factors associated with the bluetongue virus seropositivity in large game hunting areas from southern spain.an epidemiological study was carried out to determine the spatial-temporal trends and risk factors potentially involved in the seropositivity to bluetongue virus (btv) in hunting areas with presence of red deer (cervus elaphus). a total of 60 of 98 (61.2%; ci95% : 51.6-70.9) hunting areas sampled presented at least one seropositive red deer. antibodies against btv were detected in juvenile animals during the hunting seasons 2007/2008 to 2013/2014 in 15 of 98 (15.3%) hunting areas, which indicate ...201625482024
variation of spermatogenic and sertoli cell number detected by fine needle aspiration cytology (fnac) in iberian red deer during and out of the breeding season.the aim of the present study was to evaluate spermatogenesis in iberian red deer, a short-day seasonal breeder, using the fine needle aspiration cytology (fnac) technique. reports on spermatogenesis in deer are limited and here, for the first time, fnac has been used to evaluate changes in such physiological process during and out of the breeding season. testes were collected from 51 stags from november 2010 to february 2011. the sertoli index and spermatic index were significantly higher during ...201525483787
new insights into mycobacterium bovis prevalence in wild mammals in portugal.a survey to determine the prevalence of mycobacterium bovis in wild mammals in portugal was conducted by testing samples from hunted animals and those found dead between 2009 and 2013. in this study, we investigated 2116 wild mammals. post-mortem examinations were performed, and tissues were collected from wild mammals representing 8 families and 11 different species, with a total of 393 animals analysed. cultures were performed, and acid-fast isolates were identified by pcr. tissues were also s ...201625484245
prevalence of subtilase cytotoxin-encoding subab variants among shiga toxin-producing escherichia coli strains isolated from wild ruminants and sheep differs from that of cattle and pigs and is predominated by the new allelic variant subab2-2.subtilase cytotoxin (subab) is an ab5 toxin produced by shiga toxin (stx)-producing escherichia coli (stec) strains usually lacking the eae gene product intimin. three allelic variants of subab encoding genes have been described: subab1, located on a plasmid, subab2-1, located on the pathogenicity island se-pai and subab2-2 located in an outer membrane efflux protein (oep) region. subab is becoming increasingly recognized as a toxin potentially involved in human pathogenesis. ruminants and cattl ...201525488108
ixodes ricinus (ixodidae), an occasional phoront on necrophagous and coprophagous beetles in europe.for ticks, phoretic behaviour using insects associated with vertebrates might offer an alternative strategy to host-seeking. here we report for the first time the presence of immature stages of the most widespread tick species in western europe, ixodes ricinus (acari: ixodidae), on three beetle species belonging to families silphidae and geotrupidae (coleoptera). specimens were collected while performing fieldwork surveys on insect diversity during the peak of tick's questing behaviour, in july ...201525491290
modeling wood encroachment in abandoned grasslands in the eifel national park - model description and testing.the degradation of natural and semi-natural landscapes has become a matter of global concern. in germany, semi-natural grasslands belong to the most species-rich habitat types but have suffered heavily from changes in land use. after abandonment, the course of succession at a specific site is often difficult to predict because many processes interact. in order to support decision making when managing semi-natural grasslands in the eifel national park, we built the woods-model (woodland successio ...201425494057
cross-sectional study of schmallenberg virus seroprevalence in wild ruminants in poland at the end of the vector season of 2013.in view of recurrent schmallenberg virus (sbv) infections all over europe between 2011 and 2013, a lively scientific debate over the importance of the sylvatic transmission cycle of the virus has emerged. the study presents results of serosurvey which included wild ruminants representing species of red deer (cervus elaphus), roe deer (capreolus capreolus), european bison (bison bonasus), fallow deer (dama dama), mouflon (ovis orientalis musimon) hunted or immobilized at 34 different locations of ...201425528665
dna left on browsed twigs uncovers bite-scale resource use patterns in european ungulates.fine-scale resource use by large herbivores is often difficult to quantify directly. this is particularly true for browsing ungulates due to the challenges in observing shy subjects in forested environments of low visibility. as a consequence we know relatively little about resource use by diverse browsing ungulates. when browsing, ungulates leave behind saliva on the browsed twig that includes their dna, which can be used to identify the species that was responsible for browsing the twig. we us ...201525543852
leptospira spp. infection in wild ruminants: a survey in central italian alps.leptospirosis is an important zoonotic disease diffused worldwide, and wildlife species are commonly considered to be important epidemiological carriers. four-hundred and forty-one serological and 198 renal samples from red deer, roe deer and chamois collected in the province of sondrio were analysed using the microscopic agglutination test and histopathologic examination. positive serological findings were found only in 15 red deer and 19 positive serologic reactions were recorded. the most fre ...201425546066
the content of selected metals in muscles of the red deer (cervus elaphus) from poland.the aim of this study was to evaluate the concentrations of pb, cu, zn, rb, cs, sr and ba in the muscles of red deer that were hunted in two regions of poland (south-western and north-eastern). the data obtained were evaluated with regards to benefits and potential risk to consumers' health. samples for the investigations were collected in 2008 and 2009 from 50 female red deer, and the metal concentrations were determined by using the inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometric (icp-ms) method ...201525548020
long-range gene flow and the effects of climatic and ecological factors on genetic structuring in a large, solitary carnivore: the eurasian lynx.due to their high mobility, large terrestrial predators are potentially capable of maintaining high connectivity, and therefore low genetic differentiation among populations. however, previous molecular studies have provided contradictory findings in relation to this. to elucidate patterns of genetic structure in large carnivores, we studied the genetic variability of the eurasian lynx, lynx lynx throughout north-eastern europe using microsatellite, mitochondrial dna control region and y chromos ...201425551216
unmanned aircraft systems for studying spatial abundance of ungulates: relevance to spatial epidemiology.complex ecological and epidemiological systems require multidisciplinary and innovative research. low cost unmanned aircraft systems (uas) can provide information on the spatial pattern of hosts' distribution and abundance, which is crucial as regards modelling the determinants of disease transmission and persistence on a fine spatial scale. in this context we have studied the spatial epidemiology of tuberculosis (tb) in the ungulate community of doñana national park (south-western spain) by mod ...201425551673
interaction effects between weather and space use on harvesting effort and patterns in red deer.most cervid populations in europe and north america are managed through selective harvesting, often with age- and sex-specific quotas, with a large influence on the population growth rate. less well understood is how prevailing weather affects harvesting selectivity and off-take indirectly through changes in individual animal and hunter behavior. the behavior and movement patterns of hunters and their prey are expected to be influenced by weather conditions. furthermore, habitat characteristics ...201425558369
time-dependence of ¹³⁷cs activity concentration in wild game meat in knyszyn primeval forest (poland).wild game meat samples were analysed from the region of the podlasie province (knyszyn primeval forest). (137)cs content in meat was determined by gamma spectrometry in 2003 (33 samples), 2009 (22 samples) and 2012 (26 samples). the samples were collected in the autumn of 2003, 2009 and 2012 and were compared with data from 1996. mean concentrations of (137)cs in the respective years were as follow: 42.2 bq kg(-1), 33.7 bq kg(-1) and 30.5 bq kg(-1), respectively. on the basis of mean values of ( ...201525559242
spiculopteragia asymmetrica infection in cervus elaphus from iran.spiculopteragia asymmetrica is a gastrointestinal nematode frequently found in the abomasum of cervids. during december and february 2010, two red deer were died in semeskandeh sanctuary in mazandaran province. moreover, five live deer from mentioned area were treated by ivermectin and collected feces of these animals were used for assessment helminthes infection by parasitological methods. several nematodes were recovered in abomasums and in fecal samples of treated animals. number of worms rec ...201425568698
constant hepatitis e virus (hev) circulation in wild boar and red deer in spain: an increasing concern source of hev zoonotic transmission.hepatitis e is a viral zoonosis that affects multiple hosts. the complete dynamics of infection in wildlife are still unknown, but the previous fact facilitates the maintenance and circulation of the virus, posing a risk to human health in the case of meat consumption from susceptible animals. in spain, it has been shown how domestic pigs, cattle and wildlife (i.e. wild boar and red deer) clearly interact in hunting farms, generating a complex epidemiological situation in terms of interspecies p ...201625571944
a geographic cluster of malignant catarrhal fever in moose (alces alces) in norway.three cases of lethal sheep-associated malignant catarrhal fever (sa-mcf) in free-ranging moose (alces alces) were diagnosed in lesja, norway, december 2008-february 2010. the diagnosis was based on pcr identification of ovine herpesvirus 2 (ovhv-2) dna (n = 3) and typical histopathologic lesions (n = 1). to study the possibility of subclinical or latent mcf virus (mcfv) infection in this moose population and in red deer (cervus elaphus), we examined clinically normal animals sampled during hunt ...201525574807
characteristics of spermatozoa and reproductive organs in relation to age and body weight in swedish moose (alces alces).knowledge of the reproductive biology of game species is vital for sustainable management. in moose (alces alces), research in reproductive characteristics has focused on the female, whereas there are few studies in male moose. the aim of the present study was to investigate sperm morphology and chromatin integrity (scsa), and their relationships with testicular and epididymal features, as well as temporal aspects with respect to the hunting season. in total, 143 male moose aged 1.5-11.5 years w ...201525576030
composition and biological activities of slaughterhouse blood from red deer, sheep, pig and cattle.animal blood is a large-volume by-product of the meat industry. besides blood meal fertiliser, blood is marketed for human consumption as a supplement. minimal comparative work on slaughterhouse animal blood fractions has been carried out. in this study, slaughterhouse deer, sheep, pig and cattle blood parameters were compared. some blood constituents were determined. fractionated blood was assessed for antioxidant activity (2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl radical scavenging, oxygen radical scaven ...201625581344
the power of oral and nasal calls to discriminate individual mothers and offspring in red deer, cervus elaphus.in most species, acoustical cues are crucial for mother-offspring recognition. studies of a few species of ungulates showed that potential for individual recognition may differ between nasal and oral contact calls.201525610491
avoiding toxic levels of essential minerals: a forgotten factor in deer diet preferences.ungulates select diets with high energy, protein, and sodium contents. however, it is scarcely known the influence of essential minerals other than na in diet preferences. moreover, almost no information is available about the possible influence of toxic levels of essential minerals on avoidance of certain plant species. the aim of this research was to test the relative importance of mineral content of plants in diet selection by red deer (cervus elaphus) in an annual basis. we determined minera ...201525615596
susceptibility of european red deer (cervus elaphus elaphus) to alimentary challenge with bovine spongiform encephalopathy.european red deer (cervus elaphus elaphus) are susceptible to the agent of bovine spongiform encephalopathy, one of the transmissible spongiform encephalopathies, when challenged intracerebrally but their susceptibility to alimentary challenge, the presumed natural route of transmission, is unknown. to determine this, eighteen deer were challenged via stomach tube with a large dose of the bovine spongiform encephalopathy agent and clinical signs, gross and histological lesions, presence and dist ...201525615837
vegetation changes associated with a population irruption by roosevelt elk.interactions between large herbivores and their food supply are central to the study of population dynamics. we assessed temporal and spatial patterns in meadow plant biomass over a 23-year period for meadow complexes that were spatially linked to three distinct populations of roosevelt elk (cervus elaphus roosevelti) in northwestern california. our objectives were to determine whether the plant community exhibited a tolerant or resistant response when elk population growth became irruptive. pla ...201525628868
protein tyrosine phosphorylation during capacitation in sperm of a rare red deer, tarim wapiti (cervus elaphus yarkandensis).high efficiency of in vitro capacitation of deer sperm has not yet been achieved as low sperm penetration rates were reported in in vitro fertilization studies. our main goal in this study was to identify the changes of frozen-thawed sperm of the rare red deer tarim wapiti (cervus elaphus yarkandensis) and detect the effect of bovine serum albumin (bsa), serum, and heparin on the protein tyrosine phosphorylation of frozen-thawed sperm. the frozen-thawed sperm of tarim wapiti was suspended in imp ...201525638741
antimicrobial resistance in wildlife: implications for public health.the emergence and spread of antimicrobial-resistant (amr) bacteria in natural environments is a major concern with serious implications for human and animal health. the aim of this study was to determine the prevalence of amr escherichia coli (e. coli) in wild birds and mammalian species. thirty faecal samples were collected from each of the following wildlife species: herring gulls (larus argentatus), black-headed gulls (larus ridibundus), lesser black-back gulls (larus fuscus), hybrid deer spe ...201525639901
novel sequence types of chlamydia pecorum infect free-ranging alpine ibex (capra ibex) and red deer (cervus elaphus) in switzerland.chlamydia pecorum, a recognized pathogen of domesticated ruminants and koalas (phascolarctos cinereus), has been recently reported in a broad range of other wildlife species including water buffalo (bubalus bubalis), ibex (capra ibex), chamois (rupicapra rupicapra), red deer (cervus elaphus), and birds. this identification raises questions as to whether cross-host transmission may be a factor in the epidemiology of infections in these species. to begin to address this question, we employed a c. ...201525647593
establishment rate of sheep gastrointestinal nematodes in farmed red deer (cervus elaphus).to investigate the establishment of sheep gastrointestinal nematodes (gin) in red deer, five red deer and five sheep aged 5-6 months were challenged with a mixed burden of sheep gin at a rate of 327l3/kg bodyweight. the lsmean (se) establishment rates (%) for haemonchus contortus, teladorsagia circumcincta, cooperia curticei, trichostrongylus spp. and oesophagostomum+chabertia spp. were 18.6 (0.03), 35.5 (0.04), 30.7 (0.04), 74.9 (0.05), 19.9 (0.06), respectively in sheep and 10.5 (0.03), 1.0 (0 ...201525657087
molecular survey of anaplasma and ehrlichia of red deer and sika deer in gansu, china in 2013.anaplasma and ehrlichia are important emerging tick-borne pathogens in both humans and animals. here, we conducted a molecular surveillance study in gansu, china to assess the prevalence of anaplasma and ehrlichia spp. in red deer and sika deer based on polymerase chain reaction (pcr) analysis and sequencing of 16s rrna or msp genes. pcr revealed that the prevalence of anaplasma ovis, anaplasma bovis and anaplasma platys of the qilian mountain samples was 32%, 9% and 9%, respectively; the preval ...201625660960
prion amplification and hierarchical bayesian modeling refine detection of prion infection.prions are unique infectious agents that replicate without a genome and cause neurodegenerative diseases that include chronic wasting disease (cwd) of cervids. immunohistochemistry (ihc) is currently considered the gold standard for diagnosis of a prion infection but may be insensitive to early or sub-clinical cwd that are important to understanding cwd transmission and ecology. we assessed the potential of serial protein misfolding cyclic amplification (spmca) to improve detection of cwd prior ...201525665713
pragmatic perspective on conservation genetics and demographic history of the last surviving population of kashmir red deer (cervus elaphus hanglu) in india.the hangul (cervus elaphus hanglu) is of great conservation concern because it represents the easternmost and only hope for an asiatic survivor of the red deer species in the indian subcontinent. despite the rigorous conservation efforts of the department of wildlife protection in jammu & kashmir, the hangul population has experienced a severe decline in numbers and range contraction in the past few decades. the hangul population once abundant in the past has largely become confined to the dachi ...201525671567
sexual segregation in north american elk: the role of density dependence.we investigated how density-dependent processes and subsequent variation in nutritional condition of individuals influenced both timing and duration of sexual segregation and selection of resources. during 1999-2001, we experimentally created two population densities of north american elk (cervus elaphus), a high-density population at 20 elk/km(2), and a low-density population at 4 elk/km(2) to test hypotheses relative to timing and duration of sexual segregation and variation in selection of re ...201525691992
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