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the selectable antibiotic marker, teta(c), increases pseudomonas aeruginosa susceptibility to the herbicide/superoxide generator, paraquat.the presence of the widely used selectable antibiotic marker, teta(c), unexpectedly increased the sensitivity of pseudomonas aeruginosa pao1 to the superoxide-generating herbicide, paraquat. a dna fragment spanning the first 99 amino acids of teta(c) was sufficient to confer paraquat sensitivity. the teta(c)-induced paraquat sensitive phenotype was observed in other gram-negative bacteria such as agrobacterium tumefaciens, salmonella enterica ser. typhimurium and xanthomonas campestris suggestin ...201323907582
recognition of bacterial plant pathogens: local, systemic and transgenerational immunity.bacterial pathogens can cause multiple plant diseases and plants rely on their innate immune system to recognize and actively respond to these microbes. the plant innate immune system comprises extracellular pattern recognition receptors that recognize conserved microbial patterns and intracellular nucleotide binding leucine-rich repeat (nlr) proteins that recognize specific bacterial effectors delivered into host cells. plants lack the adaptive immune branch present in animals, but still afford ...201323909802
isolation of rhizospheric and roots endophytic actinomycetes from leguminosae plant and their activities to inhibit soybean pathogen, xanthomonas campestris pv. glycine.in this study, actinomycetes from roots and rhizospheric soils of leguminous plants were isolated using starch casein agar supplemented with antifungal and antibacterial antibiotics. three hundred and seventeen actinomycetes were isolated with 77 isolates obtained from plant roots and 240 isolates from rhizospheric soils. analysis of whole-organism hydrolysates showed that 289 strains were rich in the ll-isomer of diaminopimelic acid, a result consistent with their assignment to the streptomycet ...201323913026
reduced virulence of the vibrio cholerae fadd mutant is due to induction of the extracytoplasmic stress response.vibrio cholerae, an important human intestinal pathogen, is responsible for the diarrheal disease cholera. the pathogenesis of v. cholerae is a highly coordinated process that involves diverse regulatory factors. it has recently been demonstrated that disruption of the v. cholerae fadd gene, encoding a long-chain fatty acyl coenzyme a (acyl-coa) ligase, drastically reduces expression of the major virulence genes and in vivo lethality of this important human pathogen. this effect was due to reduc ...201323918781
overexpression of atshn1/win1 provokes unique defense responses.the plant cell cuticle serves as the first barrier protecting plants from mechanical injury and invading pathogens. the cuticle can be breached by cutinase-producing pathogens and the degradation products may activate pathogenesis signals in the invading pathogens. cuticle degradation products may also trigger the plant's defense responses. botrytis cinerea is an important plant pathogen, capable of attacking and causing disease in a wide range of plant species. arabidopsis thaliana shn1-1d is a ...201323922943
loss of function in mlo orthologs reduces susceptibility of pepper and tomato to powdery mildew disease caused by leveillula taurica.powdery mildew disease caused by leveillula taurica is a serious fungal threat to greenhouse tomato and pepper production. in contrast to most powdery mildew species which are epiphytic, l. taurica is an endophytic fungus colonizing the mesophyll tissues of the leaf. in barley, arabidopsis, tomato and pea, the correct functioning of specific homologues of the plant mlo gene family has been found to be required for pathogenesis of epiphytic powdery mildew fungi. the aim of this study was to inves ...201323923019
sequence-based discovery of bradyrhizobium enterica in cord colitis syndrome.immunosuppression is associated with a variety of idiopathic clinical syndromes that may have infectious causes. it has been hypothesized that the cord colitis syndrome, a complication of umbilical-cord hematopoietic stem-cell transplantation, is infectious in origin.201323924002
insights into xanthomonas axonopodis pv. citri biofilm through proteomics.xanthomonas axonopodis pv. citri (x. a. pv. citri) causes citrus canker that can result in defoliation and premature fruit drop with significant production losses worldwide. biofilm formation is an important process in bacterial pathogens and several lines of evidence suggest that in x. a. pv. citri this process is a requirement to achieve maximal virulence since it has a major role in host interactions. in this study, proteomics was used to gain further insights into the functions of biofilms.201323924281
xanthomonas filamentous hemagglutinin-like protein fha1 interacts with pepper hypersensitive-induced reaction protein cahir1 and functions as a virulence factor in host plants.pathogens have evolved a variety of virulence factors to infect host plants successfully. we previously identified the pepper plasma-membrane-resident hypersensitive-induced reaction protein (cahir1) as a regulator of plant disease- and immunity-associated cell death. here, we identified the small filamentous hemagglutinin-like protein (fha1) of xanthomonas campestris pv. vesicatoria as an interacting partner of cahir1 using yeast two-hybrid screening. coimmunoprecipitation and bimolecular fluor ...201323931712
the periplasmic hrpb1 protein from xanthomonas spp. binds to peptidoglycan and to components of the type iii secretion system.the plant-pathogenic bacterium xanthomonas campestris pv. vesicatoria employs a type iii secretion (t3s) system to translocate bacterial effector proteins into eukaryotic host cells. the membrane-spanning secretion apparatus consists of 11 core components and several associated proteins with yet unknown functions. in this study, we analyzed the role of hrpb1, which was previously shown to be essential for t3s and the formation of the extracellular t3s pilus. we provide experimental evidence that ...201323934485
the putative enoyl-coenzyme a hydratase dspi is required for production of the pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilm dispersion autoinducer cis-2-decenoic acid.in the present study, we report the identification of a putative enoyl-coenzyme a (coa) hydratase/isomerase that is required for synthesis of the biofilm dispersion autoinducer cis-2-decenoic acid in the human pathogen pseudomonas aeruginosa. the protein is encoded by pa14_54640 (pa0745), named dspi for dispersion inducer. the gene sequence for this protein shows significant homology to rpff in xanthomonas campestris. inactivation of dspi was shown to abolish biofilm dispersion autoinduction in ...201323935049
identification and characterization of ribn, a novel family of riboflavin transporters from rhizobium leguminosarum and other proteobacteria.rhizobia are symbiotic bacteria able to invade and colonize the roots of legume plants, inducing the formation of nodules, where bacteria reduce atmospheric nitrogen (n2) to ammonia (nh3). riboflavin availability influences the capacity of rhizobia to survive in the rhizosphere and to colonize roots. in this study, we identified the rl1692 gene of rhizobium leguminosarum downstream of a flavin mononucleotide (fmn) riboswitch. rl1692 encodes a putative transmembrane permease with two eama domains ...201323935051
the salmonella type iii effector ssph2 specifically exploits the nlr co-chaperone activity of sgt1 to subvert immunity.to further its pathogenesis, s. typhimurium delivers effector proteins into host cells, including the novel e3 ubiquitin ligase (nel) effector ssph2. using model systems in a cross-kingdom approach we gained further insight into the molecular function of this effector. here, we show that ssph2 modulates innate immunity in both mammalian and plant cells. in mammalian cell culture, ssph2 significantly enhanced nod1-mediated il-8 secretion when transiently expressed or bacterially delivered. in add ...201323935490
development of quorum-based anti-virulence therapeutics targeting gram-negative bacterial pathogens.quorum sensing is a cell density-dependent signaling phenomenon used by bacteria for coordination of population-wide phenotypes, such as expression of virulence genes, antibiotic resistance and biofilm formation. lately, disruption of bacterial communication has emerged as an anti-virulence strategy with enormous therapeutic potential given the increasing incidences of drug resistance in pathogenic bacteria. the quorum quenching therapeutic approach promises a lower risk of resistance developmen ...201323939429
candida albicans and enterococcus faecalis in the gut: synergy in commensalism?the fungus candida albicans and the gram-positive bacterium enterococcus faecalis are both normal residents of the human gut microbiome and cause opportunistic disseminated infections in immunocompromised individuals. using a nematode infection model, we recently showed that co-infection resulted in less pathology and less mortality than infection with either species alone and this was partly explained by an interkingdom signaling event in which a bacterial-derived product inhibits hyphal morpho ...201323941906
the transcription factor slshine3 modulates defense responses in tomato plants.the cuticle plays an important role in plant interactions with pathogens and with their surroundings. the cuticle acts as both a physical barrier against physical stresses and pathogens and a chemical deterrent and activator of the plant defense response. cuticle production in tomato plants is regulated by several transcription factors, including slshine3, an ortholog of the arabidopsis win/shn3. here we used a slshine3-overexpressing (slshn3-oe) and silenced (slshn3-rnai) lines and a mutant in ...201423943056
an s-type anion channel slac1 is involved in cryptogein-induced ion fluxes and modulates hypersensitive responses in tobacco by-2 cells.pharmacological evidence suggests that anion channel-mediated plasma membrane anion effluxes are crucial in early defense signaling to induce immune responses and hypersensitive cell death in plants. however, their molecular bases and regulation remain largely unknown. we overexpressed arabidopsis slac1, an s-type anion channel involved in stomatal closure, in cultured tobacco by-2 cells and analyzed the effect on cryptogein-induced defense responses including fluxes of cl(-) and other ions, pro ...201323950973
xopac-triggered immunity against xanthomonas depends on arabidopsis receptor-like cytoplasmic kinase genes pbl2 and ripk.xanthomonas campestris pv. campestris (xcc) colonizes the vascular system of brassicaceae and ultimately causes black rot. in susceptible arabidopsis plants, xopac type iii effector inhibits by uridylylation positive regulators of the pamp-triggered immunity such as the receptor-like cytoplasmic kinases (rlck) bik1 and pbl1. in the resistant ecotype col-0, xopac is a major avirulence gene of xcc. in this study, we show that both the rlck interaction domain and the uridylyl transferase domain of ...201323951354
hexamers of the type ii secretion atpase gspe from vibrio cholerae with increased atpase activity.the type ii secretion system (t2ss), a multiprotein machinery spanning two membranes in gram-negative bacteria, is responsible for the secretion of folded proteins from the periplasm across the outer membrane. the critical multidomain t2ss assembly atpase gspe(epse) had not been structurally characterized as a hexamer. here, four hexamers of vibrio cholerae gspe(epse) are obtained when fused to hcp1 as an assistant hexamer, as shown with native mass spectrometry. the enzymatic activity of the gs ...201323954505
small rna-mediated regulation of host-pathogen interactions.the rise in antimicrobial drug resistance, alongside the failure of conventional research to discover new antibiotics, will inevitably lead to a public health crisis that can drastically curtail our ability to combat infectious disease. thus, there is a great global health need for development of antimicrobial countermeasures that target novel cell molecules or processes. rna represents a largely unexploited category of potential targets for antimicrobial design. for decades, control of cellular ...201323958954
valorization of date palm (phoenix dactylifera) fruit processing by-products and wastes using bioprocess technology - review.the date palm phoenix dactylifera has played an important role in the day-to-day life of the people for the last 7000 years. today worldwide production, utilization and industrialization of dates are continuously increasing since date fruits have earned great importance in human nutrition owing to their rich content of essential nutrients. tons of date palm fruit wastes are discarded daily by the date processing industries leading to environmental problems. wastes such as date pits represent an ...201323961227
bacterial second messengers, cgmp and c-di-gmp, in a quest for regulatory dominance. 201323963313
lysobacter enzymogenes uses two distinct cell-cell signaling systems for differential regulation of secondary-metabolite biosynthesis and colony morphology.lysobacter enzymogenes is a ubiquitous environmental bacterium that is emerging as a potentially novel biological control agent and a new source of bioactive secondary metabolites, such as the heat-stable antifungal factor (hsaf) and photoprotective polyene pigments. thus far, the regulatory mechanism(s) for biosynthesis of these bioactive secondary metabolites remains largely unknown in l. enzymogenes. in the present study, the diffusible signal factor (dsf) and diffusible factor (df)-mediated ...201323974132
directed evolution of the tale n-terminal domain for recognition of all 5' bases.transcription activator-like effector (tale) proteins can be designed to bind virtually any dna sequence. general guidelines for design of tale dna-binding domains suggest that the 5'-most base of the dna sequence bound by the tale (the n0 base) should be a thymine. we quantified the n0 requirement by analysis of the activities of tale transcription factors (tale-tf), tale recombinases (tale-r) and tale nucleases (talens) with each dna base at this position. in the absence of a 5' t, we observed ...201323980031
the molecular mechanisms of allosteric mutations impairing mepr repressor function in multidrug-resistant strains of staphylococcus aureus.overexpression of the staphylococcus aureus multidrug efflux pump mepa confers resistance to a wide variety of antimicrobials. mepa expression is controlled by marr family member mepr, which represses mepa and autorepresses its own production. mutations in mepr are a primary cause of mepa overexpression in clinical isolates of multidrug-resistant s. aureus. here, we report crystal structures of three multidrug-resistant mepr variants, which contain the single-amino-acid substitution a103v, f27l, ...201323982071
the structure of amylosucrase from deinococcus radiodurans has an unusual open active-site topology.amylosucrases (ases) catalyze the formation of an α-1,4-glucosidic linkage by transferring a glucosyl unit from sucrose onto an acceptor α-1,4-glucan. to date, several ligand-bound crystal structures of wild-type and mutant ases from neisseria polysaccharea and deinococcus geothermalis have been solved. these structures all display a very similar overall conformation with a deep pocket leading to the site for transglucosylation, subsite -1. this has led to speculation on how sucrose enters the a ...201323989143
calcarides a-e, antibacterial macrocyclic and linear polyesters from a calcarisporium strain.bioactive compounds were detected in crude extracts of the fungus, calcarisporium sp. kf525, which was isolated from german wadden sea water samples. purification of the metabolites from the extracts yielded the five known polyesters, 15g256α, α-2, β, β-2 and π (1-5), and five new derivatives thereof, named calcarides a-e (6-10). the chemical structures of the isolated compounds were elucidated on the basis of one- and two-dimensional nmr spectroscopy supported by uv and hresims data. the compou ...201323994907
antimicrobial nodule-specific cysteine-rich peptides induce membrane depolarization-associated changes in the transcriptome of sinorhizobium meliloti.leguminous plants establish symbiosis with nitrogen-fixing alpha- and betaproteobacteria, collectively called rhizobia, which provide combined nitrogen to support plant growth. members of the inverted repeat-lacking clade of legumes impose terminal differentiation on their endosymbiotic bacterium partners with the help of the nodule-specific cysteine-rich (ncr) peptide family composed of close to 600 members. among the few tested ncr peptides, cationic ones had antirhizobial activity measured by ...201323995935
vigs-mediated forward genetics screening for identification of genes involved in nonhost resistance.nonhost disease resistance of plants against bacterial pathogens is controlled by complex defense pathways. understanding this mechanism is important for developing durable disease-resistant plants against wide range of pathogens. virus-induced gene silencing (vigs)-based forward genetics screening is a useful approach for identification of plant defense genes imparting nonhost resistance. tobacco rattle virus (trv)-based vigs vector is the most efficient vigs vector to date and has been efficie ...201323995956
argonaute protein as a linker to command center of physiological processes.micrornas (mirnas) post-transcriptionally regulate gene expression by binding to target mrnas with perfect or imperfect complementarity, recruiting an argonaute (ago) protein complex that usually results in degradation or translational repression of the target mrna. ago proteins function as the slicer enzyme in mirna and small interfering rna (sirna) pathways involved in human physiological and pathophysiological processes, such as antiviral responses and disease formation. although the past dec ...201323997530
structure of the avrbs3-dna complex provides new insights into the initial thymine-recognition mechanism.transcription activator-like effectors contain a dna-binding domain organized in tandem repeats. the repeats include two adjacent residues known as the repeat variable di-residue, which recognize a single base pair, establishing a direct code between the dipeptides and the target dna. this feature suggests this scaffold as an excellent candidate to generate new protein-dna specificities for biotechnological applications. here, the crystal structure of avrbs3 (residues 152-895, molecular mass 82  ...201323999294
progress in cultivation-independent phyllosphere microbiology.most microorganisms of the phyllosphere are nonculturable in commonly used media and culture conditions, as are those in other natural environments. this review queries the reasons for their 'noncultivability' and assesses developments in phyllospere microbiology that have been achieved cultivation independently over the last 4 years. analyses of total microbial communities have revealed a comprehensive microbial diversity. 16s rrna gene amplicon sequencing and metagenomic sequencing were applie ...201324003903
progress in cultivation-independent phyllosphere microbiology.most microorganisms of the phyllosphere are nonculturable in commonly used media and culture conditions, as are those in other natural environments. this review queries the reasons for their 'noncultivability' and assesses developments in phyllospere microbiology that have been achieved cultivation independently over the last 4 years. analyses of total microbial communities have revealed a comprehensive microbial diversity. 16s rrna gene amplicon sequencing and metagenomic sequencing were applie ...201324003903
evolutionary diversification and characterization of the eubacterial gene family encoding dxr type ii, an alternative isoprenoid biosynthetic enzyme.isoprenoids constitute a vast family of natural compounds performing diverse and essential functions in all domains of life. in most eubacteria, isoprenoids are synthesized through the methylerythritol 4-phosphate (mep) pathway. the production of mep is usually catalyzed by deoxyxylulose 5-phosphate reductoisomerase (dxr-i) but a few organisms use an alternative dxr-like enzyme (dxr-ii).201324004839
[identification of causative agent of brassica rapa bacterial diseases based on fatty acid composition of cellular lipids].the fatty acid composition of cell lipids of 15 strains isolated from the affected plants of rape and five collection strains has been studied. according to the results of chemotaxonomic analysis it has been found that 9 isolated strains are similar to representatives of species pseudomonas marginalis and pseudomonas fluorescens, and 6 - to those of xanthomonas campestris pv. campestris. the authors have established the efficiency of certain methods for the extraction of fatty acids used for the ...201324006784
tomato fruit and seed colonization by clavibacter michiganensis subsp. michiganensis through external and internal routes.the gram-positive bacterium clavibacter michiganensis subsp. michiganensis, causal agent of bacterial wilt and canker of tomato, is an economically devastating pathogen that inflicts considerable damage throughout all major tomato-producing regions. annual outbreaks continue to occur in new york, where c. michiganensis subsp. michiganensis spreads via infected transplants, trellising stakes, tools, and/or soil. globally, new outbreaks can be accompanied by the introduction of contaminated seed s ...201324014525
pepper osmotin-like protein 1 (caosm1) is an essential component for defense response, cell death, and oxidative burst in plants.osmotin or osmotin-like protein, a pr-5 family member, is differentially induced in plants by abiotic and biotic stresses. here, we demonstrate that the pepper (capsicum annuum) osmotin-like protein 1 gene, caosm1, was required for the defense and hypersensitive cell death response and oxidative burst signaling during xanthomonas campestris pv. vesicatoria (xcv) infection. caosm1 protein was localized to the plasma membrane in leaf cells of nicotiana benthamiana. agrobacterium-mediated transient ...201324022744
characteristics and antimicrobial activity of bacillus subtilis strains isolated from soil.antagonistic bacillus strains were isolated from soil and analyzed for the purpose of determining whether they could be used as natural biological agents. primary in vitro screening for antagonism of the isolates was performed against five phytopathogenic mould fungi. strains ts 01 and zr 02 exhibited the most pronounced inhibitory effects. they were identified as bacillus subtilis on the basis of their morphological, cultural and physiology-biochemical properties as well as their hierarchical c ...201024026925
predicting promoters targeted by tal effectors in plant genomes: from dream to reality. 201324027573
development of microencapsulation delivery system for long-term preservation of probiotics as biotherapeutics agent.the administration of probiotic bacteria for health benefit has rapidly expanded in recent years, with a global market worth $32.6 billion predicted by 2014. the oral administration of most of the probiotics results in the lack of ability to survive in a high proportion of the harsh conditions of acidity and bile concentration commonly encountered in the gastrointestinal tract of humans. providing probiotic living cells with a physical barrier against adverse environmental conditions is therefor ...201324027760
in vivo and in vitro effects of secondary metabolites against xanthomonas campestris pv. campestris.brassica rapa is a crucifer that is grown worldwide, mainly as a vegetable. the quality of b. rapa crops is highly affected by the disease caused by the bacteria xanthomonas campestris pv. campestris (xcc). glucosinolates and phenolic compounds can confer resistance to brassica crops against pests and diseases, but few works have been done to evaluate their role in xcc resistance. the objectives of this work were: (1) to evaluate the in vivo and in vitro antibacterial effect of gluconapin, its i ...201324029746
production of poly-γ-glutamate (pga) biopolymer by batch and semicontinuous cultures of immobilized bacilluslicheniformis strain-r.production of polyglutamate (pga) biopolymer by immobilized bacillus licheniformis strain-r was intensively investigated. preliminary experiments were carried out to address the most suitable immobilization methodology. entrapment of bacillus cells in alginate-agar led optimal pga production (36.75 g/l), with 1.32-and 2.18-fold increase in comparison with alginate-or k-carrageenan-immobilized cells, respectively. during semicontinuous cultivation of agar-alginate gel-cell mixture, production of ...200924031418
adaptive and cross-protective responses against cadmium and zinc toxicity in cadmium-resistant bacterium isolated from a zinc mine.cadmium (cd) is a major environmental hazard, which usually is detected in its ionic form of cd(2+). it also causes adverse toxic effects on human health and other living organisms. cd-resistant bacteria were isolated from cd-contaminated soils. one isolate, tak1, was highly resistance level to cd toxicity. tak1 was isolated from soil contaminated with a high cd concentration (204.1 mg.kg(-1)). the result of 16s rdna sequence analysis found that the tak1 showed the similarity to ralstonia sp. ph ...200924031431
control of colletotrichum gloeosporioides (penz.) sacc. in yellow passion fruit using cymbopogon citratus essential oil.the use of antibiotics in agriculture is limited when compared to their applications in human and veterinary medicine. on the other hand, the use of antimicrobials in agriculture contributes to the drug resistance of human pathogens and has stimulated the search for new antibiotics from natural products. essential oils have been shown to exert several biological activities including antibacterial and antifungal actions. the aim of this study was to determine the activity of 28 essential oils fro ...201024031465
the effect of different growth regimes on the endophytic bacterial communities of the fern, dicksonia sellowiana hook (dicksoniaceae).endophytic bacteria associated with the fern dicksonia sellowiana were investigated. the bacterial communities from the surface-sterilized pinnae and rachis segments of the plants from the brazilian atlantic rainforest that grew in native field conditions were compared with the bacterial communities from plants grown in greenhouses and plants that were initially grown in greenhouses and then transferred to the forest. from 540 pinnae and 540 rachis segments, 163 (30.2%) and 346 (64.2%) were colo ...201024031575
verticillium suppression is associated with the glucosinolate composition of arabidopsis thaliana leaves.the soil-borne fungal pathogen verticillium longisporum is able to penetrate the root of a number of plant species and spread systemically via the xylem. fumigation of verticillium contaminated soil with brassica green manure is used as an environmentally friendly method for crop protection. here we present a study focused on the potential role of glucosinolates and their breakdown products of the model plant arabidopsis thaliana in suppressing growth of v. longisporum. for this purpose we analy ...201324039726
genetic and proteomic analyses of a xanthomonas campestris pv. campestris purc mutant deficient in purine biosynthesis and virulence.bacterial proliferation in hosts requires activation of a number of housekeeping pathways, including purine de novo biosynthesis. although inactivation of purine biosynthesis genes can attenuate virulence, it is unclear which biochemical or virulence factors are associated with the purine biosynthesis pathway in vivo. we report that inactivation of purc, a gene encoding phosphoribosylaminoimidazole-succinocarboxamide synthase, caused complete loss of virulence in xanthomonas campestris pv. campe ...201324053949
discovery of cellobionic acid phosphorylase in cellulolytic bacteria and fungi.a novel phosphorylase was characterized as new member of glycoside hydrolase family 94 from the cellulolytic bacterium xanthomonas campestris and the fungus neurospora crassa. the enzyme catalyzed reversible phosphorolysis of cellobionic acid. we propose 4-o-β-d-glucopyranosyl-d-gluconic acid: phosphate α-d-glucosyltransferase as the systematic name and cellobionic acid phosphorylase as the short names for the novel enzyme. several cellulolytic fungi of the phylum ascomycota also possess homolog ...201324055472
diffusible signal factor (dsf) synthase rpff of xylella fastidiosa is a multifunction protein also required for response to dsf.xylella fastidiosa, like related xanthomonas species, employs an rpf cell-cell communication system consisting of a diffusible signal factor (dsf) synthase, rpff, and a dsf sensor, rpfc, to coordinate expression of virulence genes. while phenotypes of a δrpff strain in xanthomonas campestris could be complemented by its own dsf, the dsf produced by x. fastidiosa (xfdsf) did not restore expression of the xfdsf-dependent genes hxfa and hxfb to a δrpff strain of x. fastidiosa, suggesting that rpff ...201324056101
characterization of structural stability of palm oil esters-based nanocosmeceuticals loaded with tocotrienol.palm oil esters (poes) are esters derived from palm oil and oleyl alcohol have great potential in the cosmetic and pharmaceutical industries due to the excellent wetting behavior of the esters without the oily feel. the role of oil-in-water nanoemulsions loaded with tocotrienol sedimentation behavior was studied. lumifuge® 116 particle separation analyzer was used to investigate the sedimentation behavior of poes/tocotrienol/xanthan gum nanoemulsion system during centrifugation. analyzing the se ...201324059593
genome-wide transcriptome analysis of clavibacter michiganensis subsp. michiganensis grown in xylem mimicking medium.the interaction between clavibacter michiganensis subsp. michiganensis with its host, the tomato plant (solanum lycopersicum), is poorly understood and only few virulence factors are known. while studying of the bacteria in planta is time-consuming and difficult, the analysis in vitro would facilitate research. therefore, a xylem mimicking medium (xmm) for c. michiganensis subsp. michiganensis was established in this study based on an apoplast medium for xanthomonas campestris pv. vesicatoria. i ...201324060828
new clues in the nucleus: transcriptional reprogramming in effector-triggered immunity.the robustness of plant effector-triggered immunity is correlated with massive alterations of the host transcriptome. yet the molecular mechanisms that cause and underlie this reprogramming remain obscure. here we will review recent advances in deciphering nuclear functions of plant immune receptors and of associated proteins. important open questions remain, such as the identities of the primary transcription factors involved in control of effector-triggered immune responses, and indeed whether ...201324062762
a practical synthesis of long-chain iso-fatty acids (iso-c12-c19) and related natural products.a gram-scale synthesis of terminally-branched iso-fatty acids (iso-c12-c19) was developed commencing with methyl undec-10-enoate (methyl undecylenate) (for iso-c12-c14) or the c15 and c16 lactones pentadecanolide (for iso-c15-c17) and hexadecanolide (for iso-c18-c19). central to the approaches outlined is the two-step construction of the terminal isopropyl group through addition of methylmagnesium bromide to the ester/lactones and selective reduction of the resulting tertiary alcohols. thus, the ...201324062846
response of high-risk of recurrence/progression bladder tumours expressing sialyl-tn and sialyl-6-t to bcg immunotherapy.high risk of recurrence/progression bladder tumours is treated with bacillus calmette-guérin (bcg) immunotherapy after complete resection of the tumour. approximately 75% of these tumours express the uncommon carbohydrate antigen sialyl-tn (tn), a surrogate biomarker of tumour aggressiveness. such changes in the glycosylation of cell-surface proteins influence tumour microenvironment and immune responses that may modulate treatment outcome and the course of disease. the aim of this work is to de ...201324064971
quorum quenching enzymes and their application in degrading signal molecules to block quorum sensing-dependent infection.with the emergence of antibiotic-resistant strains of bacteria, the available options for treating bacterial infections have become very limited, and the search for a novel general antibacterial therapy has received much greater attention. quorum quenching can be used to control disease in a quorum sensing system by triggering the pathogenic phenotype. the interference with the quorum sensing system by the quorum quenching enzyme is a potential strategy for replacing traditional antibiotics beca ...201324065091
c-di-gmp hydrolysis by pseudomonas aeruginosa hd-gyp phosphodiesterases: analysis of the reaction mechanism and novel roles for pgpg.in biofilms, the bacterial community optimizes the strategies to sense the environment and to communicate from cell to cell. a key player in the development of a bacterial biofilm is the second messenger c-di-gmp, whose intracellular levels are modulated by the opposite activity of diguanylate cyclases and phosphodiesterases. given the huge impact of bacterial biofilms on human health, understanding the molecular details of c-di-gmp metabolism represents a critical step in the development of nov ...201324066157
small rna sx13: a multifaceted regulator of virulence in the plant pathogen xanthomonas.small noncoding rnas (srnas) are ubiquitous posttranscriptional regulators of gene expression. using the model plant-pathogenic bacterium xanthomonas campestris pv. vesicatoria (xcv), we investigated the highly expressed and conserved srna sx13 in detail. deletion of sx13 impinged on xcv virulence and the expression of genes encoding components and substrates of the hrp type iii secretion (t3s) system. qrt-pcr analyses revealed that sx13 promotes mrna accumulation of hrpx, a key regulator of the ...201324068933
an atypical kinase under balancing selection confers broad-spectrum disease resistance in arabidopsis.the failure of gene-for-gene resistance traits to provide durable and broad-spectrum resistance in an agricultural context has led to the search for genes underlying quantitative resistance in plants. such genes have been identified in only a few cases, all for fungal or nematode resistance, and encode diverse molecular functions. however, an understanding of the molecular mechanisms of quantitative resistance variation to other enemies and the associated evolutionary forces shaping this variati ...201324068949
the pepper patatin-like phospholipase caplp1 functions in plant cell death and defense signaling.phospholipases hydrolyze phospholipids into fatty acids and other lipophilic substances. phospholipid signaling is crucial for diverse cellular processes in plants. however, the precise role of phospholipases in plant cell death and defense signaling is not fully understood. here, we identified a pepper (capsicum annuum) patatin-like phospholipase (caplp1) gene that is transcriptionally induced in pepper leaves by avirulent xanthomonas campestris pv. vesicatoria (xcv) infection. caplp1 containin ...201424085708
the transcriptional regulator np20 is the zinc uptake regulator in pseudomonas aeruginosa.zinc is essential for all bacteria, but excess amounts of the metal can have toxic effects. to address this, bacteria have developed tightly regulated zinc uptake systems, such as the znuabc zinc transporter which is regulated by the fur-like zinc uptake regulator (zur). in pseudomonas aeruginosa, a zur protein has yet to be identified experimentally, however, sequence alignment revealed that the zinc-responsive transcriptional regulator np20, encoded by np20 (pa5499), shares high sequence ident ...201324086521
cell wall degrading enzyme induced rice innate immune responses are suppressed by the type 3 secretion system effectors xopn, xopq, xopx and xopz of xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae.innate immune responses are induced in plants and animals through perception of damage associated molecular patterns. these immune responses are suppressed by pathogens during infection. a number of studies have focussed on identifying functions of plant pathogenic bacteria that are involved in suppression of pathogen associated molecular pattern induced immune responses. in comparison, there is very little information on functions used by plant pathogens to suppress damage associated molecular ...201324086651
plant antimicrobial peptides.plant antimicrobial peptides (amps) are a component of barrier defense system of plants. they have been isolated from roots, seeds, flowers, stems, and leaves of a wide variety of species and have activities towards phytopathogens, as well as against bacteria pathogenic to humans. thus, plant amps are considered as promising antibiotic compounds with important biotechnological applications. plant amps are grouped into several families and share general features such as positive charge, the prese ...201324092498
plant antimicrobial peptides.plant antimicrobial peptides (amps) are a component of barrier defense system of plants. they have been isolated from roots, seeds, flowers, stems, and leaves of a wide variety of species and have activities towards phytopathogens, as well as against bacteria pathogenic to humans. thus, plant amps are considered as promising antibiotic compounds with important biotechnological applications. plant amps are grouped into several families and share general features such as positive charge, the prese ...201324092498
biochemical activities of streptococcus pneumoniae serotype 2 capsular glycosyltransferases and significance of suppressor mutations affecting the initiating glycosyltransferase cps2e.the capsular polysaccharide (cps) is essential for streptococcus pneumoniae virulence. its synthesis requires multiple enzymes, and defects that block completion of the pathway can be lethal in the absence of secondary suppressor mutations. in this study, we examined the functions of three capsular glycosyltransferases (cps2f, cps2g, and cps2i) involved in serotype 2 cps synthesis, whose deletions select for secondary mutations. we demonstrate that cps2f is a rhamnosyltransferase that catalyzes ...201324097952
antimicrobial constituents of the leaves of mikania micrantha h. b. k.to isolate plant-derived compounds with antimicrobial activity from the leaves of mikania micrantha, to determine the compounds configuration, and to evaluate their antimicrobial activity against eight plant pathogenic fungi (exserohilum turcicum, colletotrichum lagenarium, pseudoperonispora cubensis, botrytis cirerea, rhizoctonia solani, phytophthora parasitica, fusarium solani, and pythium aphanidermatum,) and four plant pathogenic bacteria (gram negative bacteria: ralstonia dolaanacearum, xan ...201324098556
antibacterial activity of nymphaea nouchali (burm. f) flower.the present work aimed to find out the antibacterial activity of nymphaea nouchali flower on human and plant pathogenic bacteria.201324099586
roles of a solo luxr in the biological control agent lysobacter enzymogenes strain oh11.lysobacter enzymogenes is a ubiquitous plant-associated and environmentally friendly bacterium emerging as a novel biological control agent of plant disease. this bacterium produces diverse antifungal factors, such as lytic enzymes and a secondary metabolite (heat-stable antifungal factor [hsaf]) having antifungal activity with a novel structure and mode of action. the regulatory mechanisms for biosynthesis of antifungal factors is largely unknown in l. enzymogenes. the solo luxr proteins have b ...201424111575
comparative study of soxr activation by redox-active compounds.soxr from escherichia coli and related enterobacteria is activated by a broad range of redox-active compounds through oxidation or nitrosylation of its [2fe-2s] cluster. activated soxr then induces soxs, which subsequently activates more than 100 genes in response. in contrast, non-enteric soxrs directly activate their target genes in response to redox-active compounds that include endogenously produced metabolites. we compared the responsiveness of soxrs from streptomyces coelicolor (scsoxr), p ...201324112649
the pepper cysteine/histidine-rich dc1 domain protein cadc1 binds both rna and dna and is required for plant cell death and defense response.plant defense against microbial pathogens is coordinated by a complex regulatory network. cysteine/histidine-rich dc1 domain proteins mediate a variety of cellular processes involved in plant growth, development and stress responses. we identified a pepper (capsicum annuum) cysteine/histidine-rich dc1 domain protein gene, cadc1, which positively regulates plant defense during microbial infection, based on gene silencing and transient expression in pepper, as well as ectopic expression in arabido ...201424117868
a three-component signalling system fine-tunes expression kinetics of hppk responsible for folate synthesis by positive feedback loop during stress response of xanthomonas campestris.during adaptation to environments, bacteria employ two-component signal transduction systems, which contain histidine kinases and response regulators, to sense and respond to exogenous and cellular stimuli in an accurate spatio-temporal manner. although the protein phosphorylation process between histidine kinase and response regulator has been well documented, the molecular mechanism fine-tuning phosphorylation levels of response regulators is comparatively less studied. here we combined geneti ...201424119200
functional characterization and transcriptional analysis of gale gene encoding a udp-galactose 4-epimerase in xanthomonas campestris pv. campestris.the gram-negative plant pathogen xanthomonas campestris pv. campestris (xcc) is the causative agent of black rot in crucifers, a disease that causes tremendous agricultural loss. in this study, the xcc gale gene was characterized. sequence and mutational analysis demonstrated that the xcc gale encodes a udp-galactose 4-epimerase (ec 5.1.3.2), which catalyzes the interconversion of udp-galactose and udp-glucose. alanine substitution of the putative catalytic residues (ser124, tyr147, and lys151) ...201424120348
characterization of bacteriophages cp1 and cp2, the strain-typing agents for xanthomonas axonopodis pv. citri.the strains of xanthomonas axonopodis pv. citri, the causative agent of citrus canker, are historically classified based on bacteriophage (phage) sensitivity. nearly all x. axonopodis pv. citri strains isolated from different regions in japan are lysed by either phage cp1 or cp2; cp1-sensitive (cp1(s)) strains have been observed to be resistant to cp2 (cp2(r)) and vice versa. in this study, genomic and molecular characterization was performed for the typing agents cp1 and cp2. morphologically, c ...201424123743
identification and molecular characterization of ysal (ye3555): a novel negative regulator of ysan atpase in type three secretion system of enteropathogenic bacteria yersinia enterocolitica.type three secretion (t3s) atpases are involved in delivery of virulent factors from bacteria to their hosts (through injectisome) in an energy (atp) dependent manner during pathogenesis. the activities of these atpases are tightly controlled by their specific regulators. in yersinia enterocolitica, ysan was predicted as a putative atpase of the ysa-ysp type three secretion system (t3ss) based on sequence similarity with other t3s atpases. however detailed study and characterization of ysan and ...201324124464
structural insights into a novel interkingdom signaling circuit by cartography of the ligand-binding sites of the homologous quorum sensing luxr-family.recent studies have identified a novel interkingdom signaling circuit, via plant signaling molecules, and a bacterial sub-family of luxr proteins, bridging eukaryotes and prokaryotes. indeed pivotal plant-bacteria interactions are regulated by the so called plant associated bacteria (pab) luxr solo regulators that, although closely related to the quorum sensing (qs) luxr family, do not bind or respond to canonical quorum sensing n-acyl homoserine lactones (ahls), but only to specific host plant ...201324132148
proteinaceous determinants of surface colonization in bacteria: bacterial adhesion and biofilm formation from a protein secretion perspective.bacterial colonization of biotic or abiotic surfaces results from two quite distinct physiological processes, namely bacterial adhesion and biofilm formation. broadly speaking, a biofilm is defined as the sessile development of microbial cells. biofilm formation arises following bacterial adhesion but not all single bacterial cells adhering reversibly or irreversibly engage inexorably into a sessile mode of growth. among molecular determinants promoting bacterial colonization, surface proteins a ...201324133488
cis-2-dodecenoic acid signal modulates virulence of pseudomonas aeruginosa through interference with quorum sensing systems and t3ss.cis-2-dodecenoic acid (bdsf) is well known for its important functions in intraspecies signaling in burkholderia cenocepacia. previous work has also established an important role of bdsf in interspecies and inter-kingdom communications. it was identified that bdsf modulates virulence of pseudomonas aeruginosa. however, how bdsf interferes with virulence of p. aeruginosa is still not clear.201324134835
the current status of the elemental defense hypothesis in relation to pathogens.metal hyperaccumulating plants are able to accumulate exceptionally high concentrations of metals, such as zinc, nickel, or cadmium, in their aerial tissues. these metals reach concentrations that would be toxic to most other plant species. this trait has evolved multiple times independently in the plant kingdom. recent studies have provided new insight into the ecological and evolutionary significance of this trait, by showing that some metal hyperaccumulating plants can use high concentrations ...201324137169
ehrlichia moonlighting effectors and interkingdom interactions with the mononuclear phagocyte.ehrlichia chaffeensis is an obligately intracellular gram negative bacterium with a small genome that thrives in mammalian mononuclear phagocytes by exploiting eukaryotic processes. herein, we discuss the latest findings on moonlighting tandem repeat protein effectors and their secretion mechanisms, and novel molecular interkingdom interactions that provide insight into the intracellular pathobiology of ehrlichiae.201324141087
rapidly evolving r genes in diverse grass species confer resistance to rice blast disease.we show that the genomes of maize, sorghum, and brachypodium contain genes that, when transformed into rice, confer resistance to rice blast disease. the genes are resistance genes (r genes) that encode proteins with nucleotide-binding site (nbs) and leucine-rich repeat (lrr) domains (nbs-lrr proteins). by using criteria associated with rapid molecular evolution, we identified three rapidly evolving r-gene families in these species as well as in rice, and transformed a randomly chosen subset of ...201324145399
the sensory histidine kinases tors and evgs tend to form clusters in escherichia coli cells.microorganisms use multiple two-component sensory systems to detect changes in their environment and elicit physiological responses. despite their wide spread and importance, the intracellular organization of two-component sensory proteins in bacteria remains little investigated. a notable exception is the well-studied clustering of the chemoreceptor-kinase complexes that mediate chemotaxis behaviour. however, these chemosensory complexes differ fundamentally from other systems, both structurall ...201324147062
diversity and antimicrobial properties of lactic acid bacteria isolated from rhizosphere of olive trees and desert truffles of tunisia.a total of 119 lactic acid bacteria (lab) were isolated, by culture-dependant method, from rhizosphere samples of olive trees and desert truffles and evaluated for different biotechnological properties. using the variability of the intergenic spacer 16s-23s and 16s rrna gene sequences, the isolates were identified as the genera lactococcus, pediococcus, lactobacillus, weissella, and enterococcus. all the strains showed proteolytic activity with variable rates 42% were eps producers, while only 1 ...201324151598
quantitative and qualitative impact of hospital effluent on dissemination of the integron pool.there is increasing evidence that human activity, and especially the resulting effluent, has a major role in the dissemination of bacterial antibiotic-resistance determinants in the environment. hospitals are the major antibiotic consumers and thus facilitate the spread of antibiotic resistance. questions are increasingly being raised about the management of hospital effluents, but their involvement in antibiotic-resistance dissemination has never been assessed. integrons are a paradigm of genet ...201324152716
quantitative and qualitative impact of hospital effluent on dissemination of the integron pool.there is increasing evidence that human activity, and especially the resulting effluent, has a major role in the dissemination of bacterial antibiotic-resistance determinants in the environment. hospitals are the major antibiotic consumers and thus facilitate the spread of antibiotic resistance. questions are increasingly being raised about the management of hospital effluents, but their involvement in antibiotic-resistance dissemination has never been assessed. integrons are a paradigm of genet ...201324152716
interspecific hybridization of cultivated rice, oryza sativa l. with the wild rice, o. minuta presl.crosses were made between four varieties ('mahsuri', 'setanjung", 'mr84" and 'mr103") of oryza sativa l. (2n=24, aa) and one accession of o. minuta (2n= 8, bbcc). the seed set obtained ranged between 9.5% and 25.1% depending on the rice variety used. by rescuing 14-day-old embryos and culturing them on 25%-strength ms medium we obtained a total of 414 f1 hybrids. the f1s were vigorous, tillered profusely, were perennial and male-sterile. the hybrids were triploid (abc) with 36 chromosomes and sh ...199624162392
cyclic diguanosine monophosphate represses bacterial flagella synthesis by interacting with the walker a motif of the enhancer-binding protein fleq.the transcription factor fleq is a bacterial aaa+ atpase enhancer-binding protein that is the master activator of flagella gene expression in the opportunistic bacterial pathogen pseudomonas aeruginosa. homologs of fleq are present in all pseudomonas species and in many polarly flagellated gamma proteobacteria. cyclic diguanosine monophosphate (c-di-gmp) is a second messenger that controls the transition between planktonic and biofilm modes of growth in bacteria in response to diverse environmen ...201324167275
transfer of resistance to xanthomonas campestris pv campestris into brassica oleracea l. by protoplast fusion.black rot caused by the bacterium xanthomonas campestris pv campestris is one of the most serious diseases of brassica oleracea. since sources of resistance to the disease within b. oleracea are insufficient and control means are limited, the development of resistant breeding lines is extremely desirable. certain lines of b. napus contain very high resistance controlled by a dominant gene, but crossing the two species sexually is very difficult. therefore, somatic hybrids were produced by protop ...199524170061
crystal structure of an hd-gyp domain cyclic-di-gmp phosphodiesterase reveals an enzyme with a novel trinuclear catalytic iron centre.bis-(3',5') cyclic di-guanylate (c-di-gmp) is a key bacterial second messenger that is implicated in the regulation of many crucial processes that include biofilm formation, motility and virulence. cellular levels of c-di-gmp are controlled through synthesis by ggdef domain diguanylate cyclases and degradation by two classes of phosphodiesterase with eal or hd-gyp domains. here, we have determined the structure of an enzymatically active hd-gyp domain protein from persephonella marina (pmgh) alo ...201324176013
crystal structure of an hd-gyp domain cyclic-di-gmp phosphodiesterase reveals an enzyme with a novel trinuclear catalytic iron centre.bis-(3',5') cyclic di-guanylate (c-di-gmp) is a key bacterial second messenger that is implicated in the regulation of many crucial processes that include biofilm formation, motility and virulence. cellular levels of c-di-gmp are controlled through synthesis by ggdef domain diguanylate cyclases and degradation by two classes of phosphodiesterase with eal or hd-gyp domains. here, we have determined the structure of an enzymatically active hd-gyp domain protein from persephonella marina (pmgh) alo ...201324176013
neisseria gonorrhoeae filamentous phage ngoφ6 is capable of infecting a variety of gram-negative bacteria.we constructed a phagemid consisting of the whole genome of the neisseria gonorrhoeae bacteriophage ngoφ6 cloned into a pbluescript plasmid derivative lacking the f1 origin of replication (named pbs::φ6). escherichia coli cells harboring pbs::φ6 were able to produce a biologically active phagemid, ngoφ6fm, capable of infecting, integrating its dna into the chromosome of, and producing progeny phagemids in, a variety of taxonomically distant gram-negative bacteria, including e. coli, haemophilus ...201424198404
sensing of the microbial neighborhood by candida albicans. 201324204254
bacterial effector activates jasmonate signaling by directly targeting jaz transcriptional repressors.gram-negative bacterial pathogens deliver a variety of virulence proteins through the type iii secretion system (t3ss) directly into the host cytoplasm. these type iii secreted effectors (t3ses) play an essential role in bacterial infection, mainly by targeting host immunity. however, the molecular basis of their functionalities remains largely enigmatic. here, we show that the pseudomonas syringae t3se hopz1a, a member of the widely distributed yopj effector family, directly interacts with jasm ...201324204266
filamentous phages of ralstonia solanacearum: double-edged swords for pathogenic bacteria.some phages from genus inovirus use host or bacteriophage-encoded site-specific integrases or recombinases establish a prophage state. during integration or excision, a superinfective form can be produced. the three states (free, prophage, and superinfective) of such phages exert different effects on host bacterial phenotypes. in ralstonia solanacearum, the causative agent of bacterial wilt disease of crops, the bacterial virulence can be positively or negatively affected by filamentous phages, ...201324204365
type iv pilus biogenesis, twitching motility, and dna uptake in thermus thermophilus: discrete roles of antagonistic atpases pilf, pilt1, and pilt2.natural transformation has a large impact on lateral gene flow and has contributed significantly to the ecological diversification and adaptation of bacterial species. thermus thermophilus hb27 has emerged as the leading model organism for studies of dna transporters in thermophilic bacteria. recently, we identified a zinc-binding polymerization nucleoside triphosphatase (ntpase), pilf, which is essential for the transport of dna through the outer membrane. here, we present genetic evidence that ...201424212586
a comprehensive meta qtl analysis for fiber quality, yield, yield related and morphological traits, drought tolerance, and disease resistance in tetraploid cotton.the study of quantitative trait loci (qtl) in cotton (gossypium spp.) is focused on traits of agricultural significance. previous studies have identified a plethora of qtl attributed to fiber quality, disease and pest resistance, branch number, seed quality and yield and yield related traits, drought tolerance, and morphological traits. however, results among these studies differed due to the use of different genetic populations, markers and marker densities, and testing environments. since two ...201324215677
episodes of horizontal gene-transfer and gene-fusion led to co-existence of different metal-ion specific glyoxalase i.glyoxalase pathway plays an important role in stress adaptation and many clinical disorders. the first enzyme of this pathway, glyoxalase i (glxi), uses methylglyoxal as a substrate and requires either ni(ii)/co(ii) or zn(ii) for activity. here we have investigated the origin of different metal ion specificities of glxi and subsequent pattern of inheritance during evolution. our results suggest a primitive origin of single-domain ni dependent glxi [ni-glxi]. this subsequently evolved into zn act ...201324220130
quantitative analysis of resistance in cotton to three new isolates of the bacterial blight pathogen.genetic variability for virulence of the bacterial blight pathogen [xanthomonas campestris pv malvacearum (smith) dye] on cotton (gossypium hirsutum l.) has been shown by the identification of 19 races of the pathogen based on disease reactions of a set of ten host differentials. this study was conducted to determine the inheritance of host resistance to three recently identified isolates of x. campestris pv malvacearum, which are virulent on the entire set of differentials. true leaves of tamco ...199024226445
ultimate system for rapid assembly of customized tal effectors.engineered tal-effector nucleases (talens) and tale-based constructs have become powerful tools for eukaryotic genome editing. although many methods have been reported, it remains a challenge for the assembly of designer-based tale repeats in a fast, precise and cost-effective manner. we present an ultimate (user-based ligation mediated assembly of tal effector) system for speedy and accurate assembly of customized tale constructs. this method takes advantage of uracil-specific excision reagent ...201324228087
selection of peach cells for insensitivity to culture filtrates of xanthomonas campestris pv. pruni and regeneration of resistant plants.individual callus cultures were initiated from 400 immature embryos of bacterial leaf spot-susceptible 'sunhigh' peach. each was subjected to several selection cycles of a toxic culture filtrate produced by xanthomonas campestris pv. pruni, the causal agent of leaf spot of peach. progressively higher concentrations of the filtrate were used in each cycle. two calli survived, and two plants were regenerated from each of the surviving calli. each of the four clones was propagated in vitro and test ...198824232397
an r package for snp marker-based parent-offspring tests.with the advancement of genotyping technologies, whole genome and high-density snp markers have been widely used for genotyping of mapping populations and for characterization of germplasm lines in many crops. before conducting snp data analysis, it is necessary to check the individuals to ensure the integrity of lines for further data analysis.201324245988
a comparative hidden markov model analysis pipeline identifies proteins characteristic of cereal-infecting fungi.fungal pathogens cause devastating losses in economically important cereal crops by utilising pathogen proteins to infect host plants. secreted pathogen proteins are referred to as effectors and have thus far been identified by selecting small, cysteine-rich peptides from the secretome despite increasing evidence that not all effectors share these attributes.201324252298
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