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filamentous phages of ralstonia solanacearum: double-edged swords for pathogenic bacteria.some phages from genus inovirus use host or bacteriophage-encoded site-specific integrases or recombinases establish a prophage state. during integration or excision, a superinfective form can be produced. the three states (free, prophage, and superinfective) of such phages exert different effects on host bacterial phenotypes. in ralstonia solanacearum, the causative agent of bacterial wilt disease of crops, the bacterial virulence can be positively or negatively affected by filamentous phages, ...201324204365
phylogenomic analysis identifies gene gains that define salmonella enterica subspecies i.comparative methods for analyzing whole genome sequence (wgs) data enable us to assess the genetic information available for reconstructing the evolutionary history of pathogens. we used the comparative approach to determine diagnostic genes for salmonella enterica subspecies i. s. enterica subsp. i strains are known to infect warm-blooded organisms regularly while its close relatives tend to infect only cold-blooded organisms. we found 71 genes gained by the common ancestor of salmonella enteri ...201324204679
protection from oxidative stress relies mainly on derepression of oxyr-dependent katb and dps in shewanella oneidensis.shewanella thrives in redox-stratified environments where accumulation of h2o2 becomes inevitable because of the chemical oxidation of reduced metals, sulfur species, or organic molecules. as a research model, the representative species shewanella oneidensis has been extensively studied for its response to various stresses. however, little progress has been made toward an understanding of the physiological and genetic responses of this bacterium to oxidative stress, which is critically relevant ...201424214945
the ribonucleoprotein csr network.ribonucleoprotein complexes are essential regulatory components in bacteria. in this review, we focus on the carbon storage regulator (csr) network, which is well conserved in the bacterial world. this regulatory network is composed of the csra master regulator, its targets and regulators. csra binds to mrna targets and regulates translation either negatively or positively. binding to small non-coding rnas controls activity of this protein. expression of these regulators is tightly regulated at ...201324217225
dynamic interplay between the periplasmic and transmembrane domains of gspl and gspm in the type ii secretion system.the type ii secretion system (t2ss) is a multiprotein nanomachine that transports folded proteins across the outer membrane of gram-negative bacteria. the molecular mechanisms that govern the secretion process remain poorly understood. the inner membrane components gspc, gspl and gspm possess a single transmembrane segment (tms) and a large periplasmic region and they are thought to form a platform of unknown function. here, using two-hybrid and pull-down assays we performed a systematic mapping ...201324223969
cloning, characterization and effect of tmpgrp-le gene silencing on survival of tenebrio molitor against listeria monocytogenes infection.peptidoglycan recognition proteins (pgrps) are a family of innate immune molecules that recognize bacterial peptidoglycan. pgrp-le, a member of the pgrp family, selectively binds to diaminopimelic acid (dap)-type peptidoglycan to activate both the immune deficiency (imd) and prophenoloxidase (propo) pathways in insects. a pgrp-le-dependent induction of autophagy to control listeria monocytogenes has also been reported. we identified and partially characterized a novel pgrp-le homologue, from ten ...201324240808
toxin-antitoxin systems: biology, identification, and application.toxin-antitoxin (ta) systems are small genetic elements composed of a toxin gene and its cognate antitoxin. the toxins of all known ta systems are proteins while the antitoxins are either proteins or non-coding rnas. based on the molecular nature of the antitoxin and its mode of interaction with the toxin the ta modules are currently grouped into five classes. in general, the toxin is more stable than the antitoxin but the latter is expressed to a higher level. if supply of the antitoxin stops, ...201324251069
chromosomal targeting by crispr-cas systems can contribute to genome plasticity in bacteria.the clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (crispr) and their associated (cas) proteins form adaptive immune systems in bacteria to combat phage and other foreign genetic elements. typically, short spacer sequences are acquired from the invader dna and incorporated into crispr arrays in the bacterial genome. small rnas are generated that contain these spacer sequences and enable sequence-specific destruction of the foreign nucleic acids. occasionally, spacers are acquired from ...201324251073
structural and functional role of gly281 in l-asparaginase from erwinia carotovora.l-asparaginases (e.c.3.5.1.1, l- asnases) have been widely used in clinical practice as chemotherapeutic drugs of acute lymphoblastic leukaemia (all). in order to evaluate the structural and functional role of selected residues in asnases we report the screening of a library of l-asnase mutants aiming to find detrimental mutations that significantly affect catalysis and substrate specificity. the library of mutants was created using the staggered extension process (step) and the genes of l- asna ...201324261975
the influence of antibody fragment format on phage display based affinity maturation of igg.today, most approved therapeutic antibodies are provided as immunoglobulin g (igg), whereas small recombinant antibody formats are required for in vitro antibody generation and engineering during drug development. particularly,single chain (sc) antibody fragments like scfv or scfab are well suited for phage display and bacterial expression, but some have been found to lose affinity during conversion into igg.in this study, we compared the influence of the antibody format on affinity maturation o ...201324262918
the influence of antibody fragment format on phage display based affinity maturation of igg.today, most approved therapeutic antibodies are provided as immunoglobulin g (igg), whereas small recombinant antibody formats are required for in vitro antibody generation and engineering during drug development. particularly,single chain (sc) antibody fragments like scfv or scfab are well suited for phage display and bacterial expression, but some have been found to lose affinity during conversion into igg.in this study, we compared the influence of the antibody format on affinity maturation o ...201324262918
implication of lateral genetic transfer in the emergence of aeromonas hydrophila isolates of epidemic outbreaks in channel catfish.to investigate the molecular basis of the emergence of aeromonas hydrophila responsible for an epidemic outbreak of motile aeromonad septicemia of catfish in the southeastern united states, we sequenced 11 a. hydrophila isolates that includes five reference and six recent epidemic isolates. comparative genomics revealed that recent epidemic a. hydrophila isolates are highly clonal, whereas reference isolates are greatly diverse. we identified 55 epidemic-associated genetic regions with 313 predi ...201324278351
plant growth-promoting bacteria: mechanisms and applications.the worldwide increases in both environmental damage and human population pressure have the unfortunate consequence that global food production may soon become insufficient to feed all of the world's people. it is therefore essential that agricultural productivity be significantly increased within the next few decades. to this end, agricultural practice is moving toward a more sustainable and environmentally friendly approach. this includes both the increasing use of transgenic plants and plant ...201224278762
ralstonia solanacearum requires pops, an ancient avre-family effector, for virulence and to overcome salicylic acid-mediated defenses during tomato pathogenesis.during bacterial wilt of tomato, the plant pathogen ralstonia solanacearum upregulates expression of pops, which encodes a type iii-secreted effector in the avre family. pops is a core effector present in all sequenced strains in the r. solanacearum species complex. the phylogeny of pops mirrors that of the species complex as a whole, suggesting that this is an ancient, vertically inherited effector needed for association with plants. a pops mutant of r. solanacearum uw551 had reduced virulence ...201324281716
secretory pathway of cellulase: a mini-review.cellulase plays an important role in modern industry and holds great potential in biofuel production. many different types of organisms produce cellulase, which go through secretory pathways to reach the extracellular space, where enzymatic reactions take place. secretory pathways in various cells have been the focus of many research fields; however, there are few studies on secretory pathways of cellulases in the literature. it is therefore necessary and important to review the current knowledg ...201324295495
nitrogen assimilation in escherichia coli: putting molecular data into a systems perspective.we present a comprehensive overview of the hierarchical network of intracellular processes revolving around central nitrogen metabolism in escherichia coli. the hierarchy intertwines transport, metabolism, signaling leading to posttranslational modification, and transcription. the protein components of the network include an ammonium transporter (amtb), a glutamine transporter (glnhpq), two ammonium assimilation pathways (glutamine synthetase [gs]-glutamate synthase [glutamine 2-oxoglutarate ami ...201324296575
genome sequence of enterobacter turicensis strain 610/05 (lmg 23731), isolated from fruit powder.we report the draft genome sequence of enterobacter turicensis strain 610/05 (lmg 23731), isolated from fruit powder. the draft genome has a size of 4,182,790 bp and a g+c% content of 58.0.201324309739
global analysis of cis-natural antisense transcripts and their heat-responsive nat-sirnas in brassica rapa.brassica rapa includes several important leaf vegetable crops whose production is often damaged by high temperature. cis-natural antisense transcripts (cis-nats) and cis-nats-derived small interfering rnas (nat-sirnas) play important roles in plant development and stress responses. however, genome-wide cis-nats in b. rapa are not known. the nats and nat-sirnas that respond to heat stress have never been well studied in b. rapa. here, we took advantage of rna-seq and small rna (srna) deep sequenc ...201324320882
knockdown of asparagine synthetase a renders trypanosoma brucei auxotrophic to asparagine.asparagine synthetase (as) catalyzes the atp-dependent conversion of aspartate into asparagine using ammonia or glutamine as nitrogen source. there are two distinct types of as, asparagine synthetase a (as-a), known as strictly ammonia-dependent, and asparagine synthetase b (as-b), which can use either ammonia or glutamine. the absence of as-a in humans, and its presence in trypanosomes, suggested as-a as a potential drug target that deserved further investigation. we report the presence of func ...201324340117
lignin: characterization of a multifaceted crop component.lignin is a plant component with important implications for various agricultural disciplines. it confers rigidity to cell walls, and is therefore associated with tolerance to abiotic and biotic stresses and the mechanical stability of plants. in animal nutrition, lignin is considered an antinutritive component of forages as it cannot be readily fermented by rumen microbes. in terms of energy yield from biomass, the role of lignin depends on the conversion process. it contains more gross energy t ...201324348159
biochemical characterization of a novel l-asparaginase with low glutaminase activity from rhizomucor miehei and its application in food safety and leukemia treatment.a novel fungal gene encoding the rhizomucor miehei l-asparaginase (rmasnase) was cloned and expressed in escherichia coli. its deduced amino acid sequence shared only 57% identity with the amino acid sequences of other reported l-asparaginases. the purified l-asparaginase homodimer had a molecular mass of 133.7 kda, a high specific activity of 1,985 u/mg, and very low glutaminase activity. rmasnase was optimally active at ph 7.0 and 45°c and was stable at this temperature for 30 min. the final l ...201424362429
arabidopsis pectin methylesterases contribute to immunity against pseudomonas syringae.pectins, major components of dicot cell walls, are synthesized in a heavily methylesterified form in the golgi and are partially deesterified by pectin methylesterases (pmes) upon export to the cell wall. pme activity is important for the virulence of the necrotrophic fungal pathogen botrytis cinerea. here, the roles of arabidopsis pmes in pattern-triggered immunity and immune responses to the necrotrophic fungus alternaria brassicicola and the bacterial hemibiotroph pseudomonas syringae pv macu ...201324367018
arabidopsis pectin methylesterases contribute to immunity against pseudomonas syringae.pectins, major components of dicot cell walls, are synthesized in a heavily methylesterified form in the golgi and are partially deesterified by pectin methylesterases (pmes) upon export to the cell wall. pme activity is important for the virulence of the necrotrophic fungal pathogen botrytis cinerea. here, the roles of arabidopsis pmes in pattern-triggered immunity and immune responses to the necrotrophic fungus alternaria brassicicola and the bacterial hemibiotroph pseudomonas syringae pv macu ...201324367018
gsl2 over-expression confers resistance to pectobacterium atrosepticum in potato.over-expression of the potato gibberellin stimulated-like 2 ( gsl2 ) gene in transgenic potato confers resistance to blackleg disease incited by pectobacterium atrosepticum and confirms a role for gsl2 in plant defence. the gibberellin stimulated-like 2 (gsl2) gene (also known as snakin 2) encodes a cysteine-rich, low-molecular weight antimicrobial peptide produced in potato plants. this protein is thought to play important roles in the innate defence against invading microbes. over-expression o ...201424370960
intestinal inflammation and stem cell homeostasis in aging drosophila melanogaster.as a barrier epithelium, the intestinal epithelium has to coordinate physiological functions like digestion and nutrient resorption with the control of commensal bacteria and the prevention of pathogenic infections. it can therefore mount powerful innate immune and inflammatory responses, while, at the same time, maintaining tissue homeostasis through regenerative processes. how these different functions are coordinated remains unclear, and further insight is required to understand the age-relat ...201324380076
host-microbe interactions in the gut of drosophila melanogaster.many insect species subsist on decaying and contaminated matter and are thus exposed to large quantities of microorganisms. to control beneficial commensals and combat infectious pathogens, insects must be armed with efficient systems for microbial recognition, signaling pathways, and effector molecules. the molecular mechanisms regulating these host-microbe interactions in insects have been largely clarified in drosophila melanogaster with its powerful genetic and genomic tools. here we review ...201324381562
structure and expression of gsl1 and gsl2 genes encoding gibberellin stimulated-like proteins in diploid and highly heterozygous tetraploid potato reveals their highly conserved and essential status.gsl1 and gsl2, gibberellin stimulated-like proteins (also known as snakin-1 and snakin-2), are cysteine-rich peptides from potato (solanum tuberosum l.) with antimicrobial properties. similar peptides in other species have been implicated in diverse biological processes and are hypothesised to play a role in several aspects of plant development, plant responses to biotic or abiotic stress through their participation in hormone crosstalk, and redox homeostasis. to help resolve the biological role ...201424382166
parallel histories of horizontal gene transfer facilitated extreme reduction of endosymbiont genomes in sap-feeding insects.bacteria confined to intracellular environments experience extensive genome reduction. in extreme cases, insect endosymbionts have evolved genomes that are so gene-poor that they blur the distinction between bacteria and endosymbiotically derived organelles such as mitochondria and plastids. to understand the host's role in this extreme gene loss, we analyzed gene content and expression in the nuclear genome of the psyllid pachypsylla venusta, a sap-feeding insect that harbors an ancient endosym ...201424398322
human pathogenic bacteria, fungi, and viruses in drosophila: disease modeling, lessons, and shortcomings.drosophila has been the invertebrate model organism of choice for the study of innate immune responses during the past few decades. many drosophila-microbe interaction studies have helped to define innate immunity pathways, and significant effort has been made lately to decipher mechanisms of microbial pathogenesis. here we catalog 68 bacterial, fungal, and viral species studied in flies, 43 of which are relevant to human health. we discuss studies of human pathogens in flies revealing not only ...201424398387
growth promotion-related mirnas in oncidium orchid roots colonized by the endophytic fungus piriformospora indica.piriformospora indica, an endophytic fungus of sebacinales, colonizes the roots of a wide range of host plants and establishes various benefits for the plants. in this work, we describe mirnas which are upregulated in oncidium orchid roots after colonization by the fungus. growth promotion and vigorous root development were observed in oncidium hybrid orchid, while seedlings were colonized by p. indica. we performed a genome-wide expression profiling of small rnas in oncidium orchid roots either ...201424409313
functional characterization of the sucrose isomerase responsible for trehalulose production in plant-associated pectobacterium species.fifty-three plant-associated microorganisms were investigated for their ability to convert sucrose to its isomers. these microorganisms included one dickeya zeae isolate and 7 enterobacter, 3 pantoea, and 43 pectobacterium species. eleven out of the 53 strains (21%) showed the ability to transform sucrose to isomaltulose and trehalulose. among those, pectobacterium carotovorum kkh 3-1 showed the highest bioconversion yield (97.4%) from sucrose to its isomers. in this strain, the addition of up t ...201424411451
lysine carboxylation: unveiling a spontaneous post-translational modification.the carboxylation of lysine residues is a post-translational modification (ptm) that plays a critical role in the catalytic mechanisms of several important enzymes. it occurs spontaneously under certain physicochemical conditions, but is difficult to detect experimentally. its full impact is unknown. in this work, the signature microenvironment of lysine-carboxylation sites has been characterized. in addition, a computational method called predictor of lysine carboxylation (prelyscar) for the de ...201324419378
lysine carboxylation: unveiling a spontaneous post-translational modification.the carboxylation of lysine residues is a post-translational modification (ptm) that plays a critical role in the catalytic mechanisms of several important enzymes. it occurs spontaneously under certain physicochemical conditions, but is difficult to detect experimentally. its full impact is unknown. in this work, the signature microenvironment of lysine-carboxylation sites has been characterized. in addition, a computational method called predictor of lysine carboxylation (prelyscar) for the de ...201324419378
identification and characterization of the carbapenem mm 4550 and its gene cluster in streptomyces argenteolus atcc 11009.nearly 50 naturally occurring carbapenem β-lactam antibiotics, most produced by streptomyces, have been identified. the structural diversity of these compounds is limited to variance of the c-2 and c-6 side chains as well as the stereochemistry at c-5/c-6. these structural motifs are of interest both for their antibiotic effects and their biosynthesis. although the thienamycin gene cluster is the only active gene cluster publically available in this group, more comparative information is needed ...201424420617
genome expression profile analysis of the maize sheath in response to inoculation to r. solani.currently, the molecular regulation mechanisms of disease-resistant involved in maize leaf sheaths infected by banded leaf and sheath blight (blsb) are poorly known. to gain insight into the transcriptome dynamics that are associated with their disease-resistant, genome-wide gene expression profiling was conducted by solexa sequencing. more than four million tags were generated from sheath tissues without any leaf or development leaf, including 193,222 and 204,824 clean tags in the two libraries ...201424420865
in vitro antibacterial activity of cysteine protease inhibitor from kiwifruit (actinidia deliciosa).the need for replacing traditional pesticides with alternative agents for the management of agricultural pathogens is rising worldwide. in this study, a cysteine proteinase inhibitor (cpi), 11 kda in size, was purified from green kiwifruit to homogeneity. we examined the growth inhibition of three plant pathogenic gram-negative bacterial strains by kiwi cpi and attempted to elucidate the potential mechanism of the growth inhibition. cpi influenced the growth of phytopathogenic bacteria agrobacte ...201224426085
in vitro antibacterial activity of cysteine protease inhibitor from kiwifruit (actinidia deliciosa).the need for replacing traditional pesticides with alternative agents for the management of agricultural pathogens is rising worldwide. in this study, a cysteine proteinase inhibitor (cpi), 11 kda in size, was purified from green kiwifruit to homogeneity. we examined the growth inhibition of three plant pathogenic gram-negative bacterial strains by kiwi cpi and attempted to elucidate the potential mechanism of the growth inhibition. cpi influenced the growth of phytopathogenic bacteria agrobacte ...201224426085
in vitro characterization of a recombinant ahl-lactonase from bacillus cereus isolated from a striped catfish (pangasianodon hypophthalmus) pond.aiia gene encoding ahl-lactonase was isolated from bacillus cereus strain n26.2, originating from a striped catfish (pangasianodon hypophthalmus) pond in vietnam. this gene, abbreviated as aiia(n26.2), was cloned and expressed in a competent escherichia coli strain bl21(de3)plyss. the resulting protein, abbreviated as aiian26.2, was highly active in the ph range of 6-8 and could retain 80 % of the maximum activity under storage for 5 days at 4 °c or for 3 days at 20 °c. these properties of aiian ...201324426155
plant rna binding proteins for control of rna virus infection.plant rna viruses have effective strategies to infect host plants through either direct or indirect interactions with various host proteins, thus suppressing the host immune system. when plant rna viruses enter host cells exposed rnas of viruses are recognized by the host immune system through processes such as sirna-dependent silencing. interestingly, some host rna binding proteins have been involved in the inhibition of rna virus replication, movement, and translation through rna-specific bind ...201324427141
pathogen virulence of phytophthora infestans: from gene to functional genomics.the oomycete, phytophthora infestans, is one of the most important plant pathogens worldwide. much of the pathogenic success of p. infestans, the potato late blight agent, relies on its ability to generate large amounts of sporangia from mycelia, which release zoospores that encyst and form infection structures. until recently, little was known about the molecular basis of oomycete pathogenicity by the avirulence molecules that are perceived by host defenses. to understand the molecular mechanis ...201224431484
pathogen virulence of phytophthora infestans: from gene to functional genomics.the oomycete, phytophthora infestans, is one of the most important plant pathogens worldwide. much of the pathogenic success of p. infestans, the potato late blight agent, relies on its ability to generate large amounts of sporangia from mycelia, which release zoospores that encyst and form infection structures. until recently, little was known about the molecular basis of oomycete pathogenicity by the avirulence molecules that are perceived by host defenses. to understand the molecular mechanis ...201224431484
lytic peptidase l5 of lysobacter sp. xl1 with broad antimicrobial spectrum.the gram-negative bacterium lysobacter sp. xl1 secretes lytic enzymes (l1-l5) into the culture medium. enzyme l5 is the most recently found extracellular lytic enzyme of this bacterium. the paper presents the results of the isolation and characterization of some properties of this enzyme. thus, enzyme l5 of lysobacter sp. xl1 is a lytic serine protease. earlier, the enzyme was shown to be secreted into the culture medium by means of outer membrane vesicles, which possess a lytic effect towards l ...201424434599
pgrp-sc2 promotes gut immune homeostasis to limit commensal dysbiosis and extend lifespan.interactions between commensals and the host impact the metabolic and immune status of metazoans. their deregulation is associated with age-related pathologies like chronic inflammation and cancer, especially in barrier epithelia. maintaining a healthy commensal population by preserving innate immune homeostasis in such epithelia thus promises to promote health and longevity. here, we show that, in the aging intestine of drosophila, chronic activation of the transcription factor foxo reduces exp ...201424439372
the global response regulator expa controls virulence gene expression through rsma-mediated and rsma-independent pathways in pectobacterium wasabiae scc3193.expa (gaca) is a global response regulator that controls the expression of major virulence genes, such as those encoding plant cell wall-degrading enzymes (pcwdes) in the model soft rot phytopathogen pectobacterium wasabiae scc3193. several studies with pectobacteria as well as related phytopathogenic gammaproteobacteria, such as dickeya and pseudomonas, suggest that the control of virulence by expa and its homologues is executed partly by modulating the activity of rsma, an rna-binding posttran ...201424441162
[properties of pectolitic phytopathogenic bacteria isolates obtained in ukraine].bacteria obtained from potato tubers having symptoms of soft rot and grown in different regions of ukraine are identified as pectobacterium carotovorum subsp. carotovorum. these bacteria strains are able to produce bacteriocines. their killer activity in respect of p. carotovorum and esherichia coli has been studied. the sensitivity to bactericines has been shown. purified fractions of bacteriocines having high molecular weight (mctv) have been obtained. the difference in composition of proteins ...201424450188
role of duox in gut inflammation: lessons from drosophila model of gut-microbiota interactions.it is well-known that certain bacterial species can colonize the gut epithelium and induce inflammation in the mucosa, whereas other species are either benign or beneficial to the host. deregulation of the gut-microbe interactions may lead to a pathogenic condition in the host, such as chronic inflammation, tissue injuries, and even cancer. however, our current understanding of the molecular mechanisms that underlie gut-microbe homeostasis and pathogenesis remains limited. recent studies have us ...201324455491
role of duox in gut inflammation: lessons from drosophila model of gut-microbiota interactions.it is well-known that certain bacterial species can colonize the gut epithelium and induce inflammation in the mucosa, whereas other species are either benign or beneficial to the host. deregulation of the gut-microbe interactions may lead to a pathogenic condition in the host, such as chronic inflammation, tissue injuries, and even cancer. however, our current understanding of the molecular mechanisms that underlie gut-microbe homeostasis and pathogenesis remains limited. recent studies have us ...201324455491
global analysis of the burkholderia thailandensis quorum sensing-controlled regulon.burkholderia thailandensis contains three acyl-homoserine lactone quorum sensing circuits and has two additional luxr homologs. to identify b. thailandensis quorum sensing-controlled genes, we carried out transcriptome sequencing (rna-seq) analyses of quorum sensing mutants and their parent. the analyses were grounded in the fact that we identified genes coding for factors shown previously to be regulated by quorum sensing among a larger set of quorum-controlled genes. we also found that genes c ...201424464461
a secreted ustilago maydis effector promotes virulence by targeting anthocyanin biosynthesis in maize.the biotrophic fungus ustilago maydis causes smut disease in maize with characteristic tumor formation and anthocyanin induction. here, we show that anthocyanin biosynthesis is induced by the virulence promoting secreted effector protein tin2. tin2 protein functions inside plant cells where it interacts with maize protein kinase zmttk1. tin2 masks a ubiquitin-proteasome degradation motif in zmttk1, thus stabilizing the active kinase. active zmttk1 controls activation of genes in the anthocyanin ...201424473076
[antitumor activity of l-asparaginase from erwinia carotovora from against different leukemic and solid tumours cell lines].we have studied dose- and time-dependent antitumor and cytotoxic effects of erwinia carotovora l-asparaginase (ecar lans) and escherichia coli l-asparaginase (medac) on human leukemic cells and human and animal solid tumor cells. we determined the sensitivity of tumor cells to l-asparaginases, as well the effect l-asparaginases on cell growth rate, protein and dna synthesis per se and with addition of different cytostatics. the data obtained demonstrated that ecar lans l-asparaginase suppressed ...201424479339
transplastomic nicotiana benthamiana plants expressing multiple defence genes encoding protease inhibitors and chitinase display broad-spectrum resistance against insects, pathogens and abiotic stresses.plastid engineering provides several advantages for the next generation of transgenic technology, including the convenient use of transgene stacking and the generation of high expression levels of foreign proteins. with the goal of generating transplastomic plants with multiresistance against both phytopathogens and insects, a construct containing a monocistronic patterned gene stack was transformed into nicotiana benthamiana plastids harbouring sweet potato sporamin, taro cystatin and chitinase ...201424479648
identification of bacteriophages for biocontrol of the kiwifruit canker phytopathogen pseudomonas syringae pv. actinidiae.pseudomonas syringae pv. actinidiae is a reemerging pathogen which causes bacterial canker of kiwifruit (actinidia sp.). since 2008, a global outbreak of p. syringae pv. actinidiae has occurred, and in 2010 this pathogen was detected in new zealand. the economic impact and the development of resistance in p. syringae pv. actinidiae and other pathovars against antibiotics and copper sprays have led to a search for alternative management strategies. we isolated 275 phages, 258 of which were active ...201424487530
mechanisms and biological roles of contact-dependent growth inhibition systems.bacterial contact-dependent growth inhibition (cdi) is mediated by the cdia/cdib family of two-partner secretion proteins. cdi(+) cells bind to susceptible target bacteria and deliver a toxic effector domain derived from the carboxyl terminus of cdia (cdia-ct). more than 60 distinct cdia-ct sequence types have been identified, and all cdi toxins characterized thus far display rnase, dnase, or pore-forming activities. cdi systems also encode cdii immunity proteins, which specifically bind and ina ...201424492845
the kiwifruit emerging pathogen pseudomonas syringae pv. actinidiae does not produce ahls but possesses three luxr solos.pseudomonas syringae pv. actinidiae (psa) is an emerging phytopathogen causing bacterial canker disease in kiwifruit plants worldwide. quorum sensing (qs) gene regulation plays important roles in many different bacterial plant pathogens. in this study we analyzed the presence and possible role of n-acyl homoserine lactone (ahl) quorum sensing in psa. it was established that psa does not produce ahls and that a typical complete luxi/r qs system is absent in psa strains. psa however possesses thre ...201424498215
managing potato wart: a review of present research status and future perspective.identification of resistance genes to potato wart disease caused by synchytrium endobioticum is the key for developing diagnostic markers for breeding resistant cultivars. we present an overview on the current knowledge of this host-pathogen system and molecular advances while highlighting future research focus. potato wart is a quarantined disease of cultivated potato (solanum tuberosum l.) caused by the obligate biotrophic, soil-borne fungus synchytrium endobioticum (schilb.) perc. since its d ...201424504551
over-expression of superoxide dismutase ameliorates cr(vi) induced adverse effects via modulating cellular immune system of drosophila melanogaster.the evolutionarily conserved innate immune system plays critical role for maintaining the health of an organism. however, a number of environmental chemicals including metals are known to exert adverse effects on immune system. the present study assessed the in vivo effect of a major environmental chemical, cr(vi), on cellular immune response using drosophila melanogaster and subsequently the protective role of superoxide dismutase (sod) based on the comparable performance of the tested anti-oxi ...201424505420
conventional and real-time pcrs for detection of erwinia piriflorinigrans allow its distinction from the fire blight pathogen, erwinia amylovora.erwinia piriflorinigrans is a new pathogenic species of the bacterial genus erwinia that has been described recently in spain. accurate detection and identification of e. piriflorinigrans are challenging because its symptoms on pear blossoms are similar to those caused by erwinia amylovora, the causal agent of fire blight. moreover, these two species share phenotypic and molecular characteristics. two specific and sensitive conventional and real-time pcr protocols were developed to identify and ...201424509928
resistance to multiple tuber diseases expressed in somaclonal variants of the potato cultivar russet burbank.multiple disease resistance is an aim of many plant breeding programs. previously, novel somatic cell selection was used to generate potato variants of "russet burbank" with resistance to common scab caused by infection with an actinomycete pathogen. coexpression of resistance to powdery scab caused by a protozoan pathogen was subsequently shown. this study sought to define whether this resistance was effective against additional potato tuber diseases, black scurf, and tuber soft rot induced by ...201424523639
targeting virulence not viability in the search for future antibacterials.new antibacterials need new approaches to overcome the problem of rapid antibiotic resistance. here we review the development of potential new antibacterial drugs that do not kill bacteria or inhibit their growth, but combat disease instead by targeting bacterial virulence.201524552512
overexpression of the brassica rapa transcription factor wrky12 results in reduced soft rot symptoms caused by pectobacterium carotovorum in arabidopsis and chinese cabbage.chinese cabbage (brassica rapa l. ssp. pekinensis), an important vegetable crop, can succumb to diseases such as bacterial soft rot, resulting in significant loss of crop productivity and quality. pectobacterium carotovorum ssp. carotovorum (pcc) causes soft rot disease in various plants, including chinese cabbage. to overcome crop loss caused by bacterial soft rot, a gene from chinese cabbage was isolated and characterised in this study. we isolated the brwrky12 gene from chinese cabbage, which ...201424552622
there is a specific response to ph by isolates of haemophilus influenzae and this has a direct influence on biofilm formation.haemophilus influenzae colonizes the nasopharynx as a commensal. strain-specific factors allow some strains to migrate to particular anatomical niches, such as the middle ear, bronchi or blood, and induce disease by surviving within the conditions present at these sites in the body. it is established that h. influenzae colonization and in some cases survival is highly dependent on their ability to form a biofilm. biofilm formation is a key trait in the development of chronic infection by certain ...201424555828
comparative genomics of type vi secretion systems in strains of pantoea ananatis from different environments.the type vi secretion system (t6ss) has been identified in several different bacteria, including the plant pathogenpantoea ananatis. previous in silico analyses described three different t6ss loci present in the pathogenic strain of p. ananatis lmg 20103. this initial investigation has been extended to include an additional seven sequenced strains of p. ananatis together with 39 strains from different ecological niches. comparative and phylogenetic analyses were used to investigate the distribut ...201424571088
bacterial ice crystal controlling proteins.across the world, many ice active bacteria utilize ice crystal controlling proteins for aid in freezing tolerance at subzero temperatures. ice crystal controlling proteins include both antifreeze and ice nucleation proteins. antifreeze proteins minimize freezing damage by inhibiting growth of large ice crystals, while ice nucleation proteins induce formation of embryonic ice crystals. although both protein classes have differing functions, these proteins use the same ice binding mechanisms. rath ...201424579057
crystal structure of the carbapenem intrinsic resistance protein carg.in the gram-negative enterobacterium erwinia (pectobacterium) and serratia sp. atcc 39006, intrinsic resistance to the carbapenem antibiotic 1-carbapen-2-em-3-carboxylic acid is mediated by the carf and carg proteins, by an unknown mechanism. here, we report a high-resolution crystal structure for the serratia sp. atcc 39006 carbapenem resistance protein carg. this structure of carg is the first in the carbapenem intrinsic resistance (cir) family of resistance proteins from carbapenem-producing ...201424583229
the post-transcriptional regulator rsma/csra activates t3ss by stabilizing the 5' utr of hrpg, the master regulator of hrp/hrc genes, in xanthomonas.the rsma/csra family of the post-transcriptional regulators of bacteria is involved in the regulation of many cellular processes, including pathogenesis. in this study, we demonstrated that rsma not only is required for the full virulence of the phytopathogenic bacterium xanthomonas citri subsp. citri (xcc) but also contributes to triggering the hypersensitive response (hr) in non-host plants. deletion of rsma resulted in significantly reduced virulence in the host plant sweet orange and a delay ...201424586158
loss of trabid, a new negative regulator of the drosophila immune-deficiency pathway at the level of tak1, reduces life span.a relatively unexplored nexus in drosophila immune deficiency (imd) pathway is tgf-beta activating kinase 1 (tak1), which triggers both immunity and apoptosis. in a cell culture screen, we identified that lysine at position 142 was a k63-linked ubiquitin acceptor site for tak1, required for signalling. moreover, lysine at position 156 functioned as a k48-linked ubiquitin acceptor site, also necessary for tak1 activity. the deubiquitinase trabid interacted with tak1, reducing immune signalling ou ...201424586180
βν integrin inhibits chronic and high level activation of jnk to repress senescence phenotypes in drosophila adult midgut.proper control of adult stem cells including their proliferation and differentiation is crucial in maintaining homeostasis of well-organized tissues/organs throughout an organism's life. the drosophila adult midgut has intestinal stem cells (iscs), which have been exploited as a simple model system to investigate mechanisms controlling adult tissue homeostasis. here, we found that a viable mutant of βν integrin (βint-ν), encoding one of two drosophila integrin β subunits, showed a short midgut a ...201424586740
mechanism of escherichia coli resistance to pyrrhocoricin.due to their lack of toxicity to mammalian cells and good serum stability, proline-rich antimicrobial peptides (pr-amps) have been proposed as promising candidates for the treatment of infections caused by antimicrobial-resistant bacterial pathogens. it has been hypothesized that these peptides act on multiple targets within bacterial cells, and therefore the likelihood of the emergence of resistance was considered to be low. here, we show that spontaneous escherichia coli mutants resistant to p ...201424590485
recent developments in protein and peptide parenteral delivery approaches.discovery of insulin in the early 1900s initiated the research and development to improve the means of therapeutic protein delivery in patients. in the past decade, great emphasis has been placed on bringing protein and peptide therapeutics to market. despite tremendous efforts, parenteral delivery still remains the major mode of administration for protein and peptide therapeutics. other routes such as oral, nasal, pulmonary and buccal are considered more opportunistic rather than routine applic ...201424592957
secreted gaussia princeps luciferase as a reporter of escherichia coli replication in a mouse tissue cage model of infection.measurement of bacterial burden in animal infection models is a key component for both bacterial pathogenesis studies and therapeutic agent research. the traditional quantification means for in vivo bacterial burden requires frequent animal sacrifice and enumerating colony forming units (cfu) recovered from infection loci. to address these issues, researchers have developed a variety of luciferase-expressing bacterial reporter strains to enable bacterial detection in living animals. to date, all ...201424595353
enhancing production of alkaline polygalacturonate lyase from bacillus subtilis by fed-batch fermentation.alkaline polygalacturonate lyase (pgl, ec 4.2.2.2) is an enzyme used in many industries. we developed a fed-batch fermentation process that combines the enzymatic pretreatment of the carbon source with controlling the ph of the fermentative broth to enhance the pgl production from bacillus subtilis 7-3-3 to decrease the production cost. maintaining the fermentation broth at ph 6.5 prior to feeding with ammonia and at ph 6.0 after feeding significantly improved pgl activity (743.5 u ml-1) compare ...201424603713
mechanism of the c5 stereoinversion reaction in the biosynthesis of carbapenem antibiotics.the bicyclic β-lactam/2-pyrrolidine precursor to all carbapenem antibiotics is biosynthesized by attachment of a carboxymethylene unit to c5 of l-proline followed by β-lactam ring closure. carbapenem synthase (carc), an fe(ii) and 2-(oxo)glutarate (fe/2og)-dependent oxygenase, then inverts the c5 configuration. here we report the structure of carc in complex with its substrate and biophysical dissection of its reaction to reveal the stereoinversion mechanism. an fe(iv)-oxo intermediate abstracts ...201424604200
amylocyclicin, a novel circular bacteriocin produced by bacillus amyloliquefaciens fzb42.bacillus amyloliquefaciens fzb42 is a gram-positive plant growth-promoting bacterium with an impressive capacity to synthesize nonribosomal secondary metabolites with antimicrobial activity. here we report on a novel circular bacteriocin which is ribosomally synthesized by fzb42. the compound displayed high antibacterial activity against closely related gram-positive bacteria. transposon mutagenesis and subsequent site-specific mutagenesis combined with matrix-assisted laser desorption ionizatio ...201424610713
studies on optimization of growth parameters for l-asparaginase production by streptomyces ginsengisoli.a species of streptomyces, streptomyces ginsengisoli, a river isolate, was evaluated for production of an enzyme, l-asparaginase, with multiple functions mainly anticancer activity. the actinomycete was subjected to submerged fermentation by "shake flask" method. the quantity of l-asparaginase produced was estimated as 3.23 μ mol/ml/min. the effect of various culture conditions on l-asparaginase production was studied by adopting a method of variation in one factor at a time. of the various cond ...201424616652
the skpo-1 peroxidase functions in the hypodermis to protect caenorhabditis elegans from bacterial infection.in recent years, the synergistic relationship between nadph oxidase (nox)/dual oxidase (duox) enzymes and peroxidases has received increased attention. peroxidases utilize nox/duox-generated h2o2 for a myriad of functions including, but not limited to, thyroid hormone biosynthesis, cross-linking extracellular matrices (ecm), and immune defense. we postulated that one or more peroxidases produced by caenorhabditis elegans would act in host defense, possibly in conjunction with bli-3, the only nox ...201424621828
quorum sensing activity of serratia fonticola strain rb-25 isolated from an ex-landfill site.quorum sensing is a unique bacterial communication system which permits bacteria to synchronize their behaviour in accordance with the population density. the operation of this communication network involves the use of diffusible autoinducer molecules, termed n-acylhomoserine lactones (ahls). serratia spp. are well known for their use of quorum sensing to regulate the expression of various genes. in this study, we aimed to characterized the ahl production of a bacterium designated as strain rb-2 ...201424625739
redox signaling mediates symbiosis between the gut microbiota and the intestine.the microbiota that populates the intestinal tract affects many physiological processes, such as cell proliferation, epithelial barrier function, and immune responses. however, the molecular mechanisms by which the microbiota influences these events remain unknown. it was recently reported by our research group that specific taxa of intestinal bacteria induce the rapid and transient enzymatic production of reactive oxygen species (ros) within enterocytes. whereas nadph oxidase 2 (nox2) catalyzed ...201424637602
the arabidopsis lysin motif-containing receptor-like kinase3 regulates the cross talk between immunity and abscisic acid responses.transmembrane receptor-like kinases characterized by the presence of one or more lysin motif (lysm) domains in the extracytoplasmic portion (lysm-containing receptor-like kinases [lyks]) mediate recognition of symbiotic and pathogenic microorganisms in plants. the arabidopsis (arabidopsis thaliana) genome encodes five putative lyks; among them, atlyk1/chitin elicitor receptor kinase1 is required for response to chitin and peptidoglycan, and atlyk4 contributes to chitin perception. more recently, ...201424639336
complete genome sequence of the pectobacterium carotovorum subsp. carotovorum virulent bacteriophage pm1.pm1, a novel virulent bacteriophage that infects pectobacterium carotovorum subsp. carotovorum, was isolated. its morphological features were examined by electron microscopy, which indicated that this phage belongs to the family myoviridae. it has a 55,098-bp genome, including a 2,665-bp terminal repeat. a total of 63 open reading frames (orfs) were predicted, but only 20 orfs possessed homology with functional proteins. there is one trna coding region, and the gc-content of the genome is 44.9 % ...201424643332
trichokonins from trichoderma pseudokoningii smf2 induce resistance against gram-negative pectobacterium carotovorum subsp. carotovorum in chinese cabbage.peptaibols, mainly produced by trichoderma, play a pivotal role in controlling plant disease caused by fungi, virus, and gram-positive bacteria. in the current study, we evaluated the control effect of trichokonins, antimicrobial peptaibols from trichoderma pseudokoningii smf2, on soft rot disease of chinese cabbage caused by a gram-negative bacterium pectobacterium carotovorum subsp. carotovorum and analyzed the mechanism involved. trichokonins treatment (0.3 mg l(-1) ) enhanced the resistance ...201424655217
analysis of hydroxycinnamic acid degradation in agrobacterium fabrum reveals a coenzyme a-dependent, beta-oxidative deacetylation pathway.the soil- and rhizosphere-inhabiting bacterium agrobacterium fabrum (genomospecies g8 of the agrobacterium tumefaciens species complex) is known to have species-specific genes involved in ferulic acid degradation. here, we characterized, by genetic and analytical means, intermediates of degradation as feruloyl coenzyme a (feruloyl-coa), 4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl-β-hydroxypropionyl-coa, 4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl-β-ketopropionyl-coa, vanillic acid, and protocatechuic acid. the genes atu1416, atu14 ...201424657856
the arable ecosystem as battleground for emergence of new human pathogens.disease incidences related to escherichia coli and salmonella enterica infections by consumption of (fresh) vegetables, sprouts, and occasionally fruits made clear that these pathogens are not only transmitted to humans via the "classical" routes of meat, eggs, and dairy products, but also can be transmitted to humans via plants or products derived from plants. nowadays, it is of major concern that these human pathogens, especially the ones belonging to the taxonomical family of enterobacteriace ...201424688484
rational approaches for engineering novel functionalities in carbon-carbon bond forming enzymes.enzymes that catalyze carbon-carbon bond formation can be exploited as biocatalyst for synthetic organic chemistry. however, natural enzymes frequently do not possess the required properties or specificities to catalyze industrially useful transformations. this mini-review describes recent work using knowledge-guided site-specific mutagenesis of key active site residues to alter substrate specificity, stereospecificity and reaction specificity of these enzymes. in addition, examples of de novo d ...201224688644
discovery of function in the enolase superfamily: d-mannonate and d-gluconate dehydratases in the d-mannonate dehydratase subgroup.the continued increase in the size of the protein sequence databases as a result of advances in genome sequencing technology is overwhelming the ability to perform experimental characterization of function. consequently, functions are assigned to the vast majority of proteins via automated, homology-based methods, with the result that as many as 50% are incorrectly annotated or unannotated ( schnoes et al. plos comput. biol. 2009 , 5 ( 12 ), e1000605 ). this manuscript describes a study of the d ...201424697546
annotation of protein domains reveals remarkable conservation in the functional make up of proteomes across superkingdoms.the functional repertoire of a cell is largely embodied in its proteome, the collection of proteins encoded in the genome of an organism. the molecular functions of proteins are the direct consequence of their structure and structure can be inferred from sequence using hidden markov models of structural recognition. here we analyze the functional annotation of protein domain structures in almost a thousand sequenced genomes, exploring the functional and structural diversity of proteomes. we find ...201124710297
influences of the colonic microbiome on the mucous gel layer in ulcerative colitis.the colonic mucus gel layer (mgl) is a critical component of the innate immune system acting as a physical barrier to microbes, luminal insults, and toxins. mucins are the major component of the mgl. selected microbes have the potential to interact with, bind to, and metabolize mucins. the tolerance of the host to the presence of these microbes is critical to maintaining mgl homeostasis. in disease states such as ulcerative colitis (uc), both the mucosa associated microbes and the constituent mg ...201424714392
molecular cloning and characterization of a group ii wrky transcription factor from jatropha curcas, an important biofuel crop.the wrky family of transcription factors (tfs) play an intricate role in regulating the stress signaling pathways by autoregulation or may be by cross regulation through interaction with other proteins. although wrky tfs are considered to be plant specific, however, their presence has been reported from unicellular algae, slime mould, and gymnosperms. we have isolated the jcwrky cdna from an important biofuel crop jatropha curcas growing in the wastelands of india. the jcwrky gene has an orf of ...201424720696
commonalities and differences of t3sss in rhizobia and plant pathogenic bacteria.plant pathogenic bacteria and rhizobia infect higher plants albeit the interactions with their hosts are principally distinct and lead to completely different phenotypic outcomes, either pathogenic or mutualistic, respectively. bacterial protein delivery to plant host plays an essential role in determining the phenotypic outcome of plant-bacteria interactions. the involvement of type iii secretion systems (t3sss) in mediating animal- and plant-pathogen interactions was discovered in the mid-80's ...201424723933
mechanisms of post-transcriptional gene regulation in bacterial biofilms.biofilms are characterized by a dense multicellular community of microorganisms that can be formed by the attachment of bacteria to an inert surface and to each other. the development of biofilm involves the initial attachment of planktonic bacteria to a surface, followed by replication, cell-to-cell adhesion to form microcolonies, maturation, and detachment. mature biofilms are embedded in a self-produced extracellular polymeric matrix composed primarily of bacterial-derived exopolysaccharides, ...201424724055
interaction of a partially disordered antisigma factor with its partner, the signaling domain of the tonb-dependent transporter hasr.bacteria use diverse signaling pathways to control gene expression in response to external stimuli. in gram-negative bacteria, the binding of a nutrient is sensed by an outer membrane transporter. this signal is then transmitted to an antisigma factor and subsequently to the cytoplasm where an ecf sigma factor induces expression of genes related to the acquisition of this nutrient. the molecular interactions involved in this transmembrane signaling are poorly understood and structural data on th ...201424727671
the type ii secretion pathway in vibrio cholerae is characterized by growth phase-dependent expression of exoprotein genes and is positively regulated by σe.vibrio cholerae, an etiological agent of cholera, circulates between aquatic reservoirs and the human gastrointestinal tract. the type ii secretion (t2s) system plays a pivotal role in both stages of the lifestyle by exporting multiple proteins, including cholera toxin. here, we studied the kinetics of expression of genes encoding the t2s system and its cargo proteins. we have found that under laboratory growth conditions, the t2s complex was continuously expressed throughout v. cholerae growth, ...201424733097
drosophila microbiota modulates host metabolic gene expression via imd/nf-κb signaling.most metazoans engage in mutualistic interactions with their intestinal microbiota. despite recent progress the molecular mechanisms through which microbiota exerts its beneficial influences on host physiology are still largely uncharacterized. here we use axenic drosophila melanogaster adults associated with a standardized microbiota composed of a defined set of commensal bacterial strains to study the impact of microbiota association on its host transcriptome. our results demonstrate that dros ...201424733183
genomic and metabolic comparison with dickeya dadantii 3937 reveals the emerging dickeya solani potato pathogen to display distinctive metabolic activities and t5ss/t6ss-related toxin repertoire.the pectinolytic enterobacteria of the pectobacterium and dickeya genera are causative agents of maceration-associated diseases affecting a wide variety of crops and ornamentals. for the past decade, the emergence of a novel species d. solani was observed in potato fields in europe and the mediterranean basin. the purpose of this study is to search by comparative genomics the genetic traits that could be distinctive to other dickeya species and be involved in d. solani adaptation to the potato p ...201424735398
quorum sensing activity of hafnia alvei isolated from packed food.quorum sensing (qs) is a mechanism adopted by bacteria to regulate expression of genes according to population density. n-acylhomoserine lactones (ahls) are a type of qs signalling molecules commonly found in gram-negative bacteria which have been reported to play a role in microbial spoilage of foods and pathogenesis. in this study, we isolated an ahl-producing hafnia alvei strain (fb1) from spherical fish pastes. analysis via high resolution triple quadrupole liquid chromatography/mass spectro ...201424736131
in situ evaluation of paenibacillus alvei in reducing carriage of salmonella enterica serovar newport on whole tomato plants.recently, tomatoes have been implicated as a primary vehicle in food-borne outbreaks of salmonella enterica serovar newport and other salmonella serovars. long-term intervention measures to reduce salmonella prevalence on tomatoes remain elusive for growing and postharvest environments. a naturally occurring bacterium identified by 16s rrna gene sequencing as paenibacillus alvei was isolated epiphytically from plants native to the virginia eastern shore tomato-growing region. after initial antim ...201424747888
physcomitrella patens has kinase-lrr r gene homologs and interacting proteins.plant disease resistance gene (r gene)-like sequences were screened from the physcomitrella patens genome. we found 603 kinase-like, 475 nucleotide binding site (nbs)-like and 8594 leucine rich repeat (lrr)-like sequences by homology searching using the respective domains of ppc24 (accession no. bad38895), which is a candidate kinase-nbs-lrr (kinase-nl) type r-like gene, as a reference. the positions of these domains in the genome were compared and 17 kinase-nls were predicted. we also found fou ...201424748046
antagonistic bacillus species as a biological control of ginseng root rot caused by fusarium cf. incarnatum.this study aimed to develop a biocontrol system for ginseng root rot caused by fusarium cf. incarnatum.201324748838
antagonistic bacillus species as a biological control of ginseng root rot caused by fusarium cf. incarnatum.this study aimed to develop a biocontrol system for ginseng root rot caused by fusarium cf. incarnatum.201324748838
pcexl1 a novel acid expansin-like protein from the plant pathogen pectobacterium carotovorum, binds cell walls differently to bsexlx1.microbial expansins act on plant cell walls similarly to plant expansins, albeit their loosening activity levels are tenfold lesser compared to plant expansins. we report the characterization of an expansin-like gene from the plant pathogen pectobacterium carotovorum, named exl1. pcexl1 is an acidic protein that binds cellulose (avicel), and weakens filter paper. the acidic nature of pcexl1 confers different binding properties when compared to bacillus subtilis bsexlx1, which is a basic protein. ...201424755657
metalloproteins containing cytochrome, iron-sulfur, or copper redox centers. 201424758379
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