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diversity of culturable microorganisms and occurrence of listeria monocytogenes and salmonella spp. in tuber aestivum and tuber melanosporum ascocarps.the aim of this study was to investigate the total mesophilic microorganisms, pseudomonas genus, enterobacteriaceae family, mold and yeast counts and the presence of listeria monocytogenes and salmonella spp on tuber aestivum and tuber melanosporum ascocarps. the results confirmed that the major percentage of the microorganisms, approximately 9.0 log ufc/g, were present in the peridium, the glebas of healthy truffles being practically free of microorganisms. the predominant microbial group was t ...201020141948
current state and perspectives of truffle genetics and sustainable biotechnology.mycorrhizal fungi belonging to the genus tuber produce, after the establishment of a productive interaction with a plant host, hypogeous fruitbodies of great economic value known as ''truffles''. this review summarizes the state of art on life cycle, genetic, and biotechnological investigations of tuber spp. the ascocarp formation in truffles is a consequence of the activation of the sexual phase of the biological cycle. the formation of a dikaryotic secondary mycelium and the karyogamy in the a ...200616802150
a quest for indigenous truffle helper prokaryotes.tuber aestivum is the most common european truffle with significant commercial exploitation. its production originates from natural habitats and from artificially inoculated host tree plantations. formation of tuber ectomycorrhizae in host seedling roots is often inefficient. one possible reason is the lack of indigenous associative microbes. here we aimed at metagenetic characterization and cultivation of indigenous prokaryotes associated with t. aestivum in a field transect cutting through the ...201223754715
ectomycorrhizal communities in a productive tuber aestivum vittad. orchard: composition, host influence and species replacement.truffles (tuber spp.) and other ectomycorrhizal species form species-rich assemblages in the wild as well as in cultivated ecosystems. we aimed to investigate the ectomycorrhizal communities of hazels and hornbeams that are growing in a 24-year-old tuber aestivum orchard. we demonstrated that the ectomycorrhizal communities included numerous species and were phylogenetically diverse. twenty-nine ectomycorrhizal taxa were identified. tuber aestivum ectomycorrhizae were abundant (9.3%), only those ...201121223332
effects of electron-beam irradiation on the shelf life, microbial populations and sensory characteristics of summer truffles (tuber aestivum) packaged under modified atmospheres.the effects of two doses of electron-beam irradiation (1.5 kgy and 2.5 kgy) on the microbial populations (total mesophilic aerobes, pseudomonas genus, enterobacteriaceae family, molds and yeasts) and sensory characteristics of tuber aestivum packaged under modified atmospheres were monitored immediately after treatment, and weekly during 42 days of storage at 4 °c. treatment with 1.5 and 2.5 kgy reduced the pseudomonads populations by 4.3 and 5.5 logs, respectively. enterobacteriaceae counts dec ...201021056786
tuber aestivum (syn. t. uncinatum) biotopes and their history on gotland, sweden.this study aimed at testing the hypothesis that the genetically distinct tuber aestivum population on the island of gotland, sweden, is adapted to habitats different from french t. aestivum populations. the soil structure, soil chemistry, bedrock, climate, vegetation and host tree continuity of 18 t. aestivum sites on gotland were analysed and compared with data from france. we conclude that t. aestivum can grow in soils with a broad soil structure range and that no striking differences in soil ...200415185980
the population of the hypogeous fungus tuber aestivum syn. t. uncinatum on the island of gotland.the aim of our study was to examine the genetic variation within tuber aestivum on the baltic island of gotland, sweden. variation in such a limited geographical area should help illuminate the dispersal abilities of t. aestivum. knowledge of the genetic variation in this northern outpost could also be useful in the selection of inoculum for the establishment of truffle orchards. genetic structure and homogeneity of the population were studied using principal component and parsimony analyses of ...200414534851
biochemical, electrophoretic and immunohistochemical aspects of malate dehydrogenase in truffles (ascomycotina).the malate dehydrogenase (mdh; ec 1.1.1.37; l-malate-nad(+)-oxidoreductase) activities of truffles of the genus tuber (tuber melanosporum vittad., tuber brumale vittad., tuber aestivum vittad., tuber magnatum pico, tuber rufum pico) have been characterized with regard to the k(m) and v(max) values in the direct and reverse reactions. the isoelectrofocusing has revealed bands showing pi values ranging from ph 5.85 to 7.8. the mdh of t. melanosporum has been partially purified by hydroxyapatite tr ...200010754250
a novel mycovirus from clitocybe odora.the ninth report of the international committee on taxonomy of viruses (ictv) reports only a few species whose members replicate in fungi. most of these mycoviruses are described to replicate in phytopathogenic and commercially cultivated fungi. a few reports describe virus-like symptoms and virus-like particles in non-cultivated basidiocarps such as boletus edulis, laccaria spp. and cantharellus spp. however, viral sequences from non-cultivated agaricomycotina are not available yet. in this rep ...201222678719
first identification of polymorphic microsatellite markers in the burgundy truffle, tuber aestivum (tuberaceae). 201325202513
tuber aestivum vittad. mycelium quantified: advantages and limitations of a qpcr approach.a quantitative real-time pcr (qpcr) marker ta0 with hydrolysis probe ("taqman"), targeted to the internal transcribed spacer region of the ribosomal dna, has been developed for quantification of summer truffle (tuber aestivum) mycelium. gene copy concentrations determined by the qpcr were calibrated against pure culture mycelium of t. aestivum, enabling quantification of the mycelium in soil and in host roots from the fields. significant concentrations of the fungus were observed not only in the ...201323271632
comparison of ectomycorrhizal communities in natural and cultivated tuber melanosporum truffle grounds.truffles are hypogeous ectomycorrhizal (em) fungi belonging to the genus tuber. although outplanting of truffle-inoculated host plants has enabled the realization of productive orchards, truffle cultivation is not yet standardized. therefore, monitoring the distribution of fungal species in different truffle fields may help us to elucidate the factors that shape microbial communities and influence the propagation and fruiting of tuber spp. in this study, we compared the fungal biodiversity in cu ...201222469019
mycorrhization of pecan trees (carya illinoinensis) with commercial truffle species: tuber aestivum vittad. and tuber borchii vittad.pecan (carya illinoinensis) is an economically important nut tree native to the mississippi basin and cultivated worldwide. in north america, species of truffles are regularly found fruiting in productive pecan orchards and the truffle genus tuber appears to be abundant in pecan ectomycorrhizal (em) communities. as an initial step to determine the feasibility of co-cropping european truffle species with pecan, we evaluated whether mycorrhizae of highly esteemed european truffle species (tuber ae ...201221986799
mycorrhization of pecan (carya illinoinensis) with black truffles: tuber melanosporum and tuber brumale.pecan, carya illinoinensis, is an economically important nut producing tree that can establish ectomycorrhizal symbiosis with a high diversity of fungi. in the southern usa, truffles (tuber spp.) sometimes fruit prolifically in cultivated pecan orchards and regularly associate with pecan roots as ectomycorrhizae (ecms). it has been demonstrated that some valuable european truffle species (e.g., tuber borchii and tuber aestivum) can form ecms with pecan seedlings in nursery conditions. thus, peca ...201727838857
comparison of lipid content and fatty acid composition between tuber fermentation mycelia and natural fruiting bodies.a comparison of lipid content and fatty acid (fa) composition between tuber fermentation mycelia and natural fruiting bodies indicates that the lipid content in tuber fermentation mycelia is higher than that in fruiting bodies. unsaturated fas (particularly linoleic acid and oleic acid) were the predominant constituents in total fas in both tuber fermentation mycelia and fruiting bodies. a total of 23 fas, including arachidonic, eicosapentaenoic, docosahexaenoic, and γ-linolenic acids, were firs ...201121449542
complete genome sequence of the first endornavirus from the ascocarp of the ectomycorrhizal fungus tuber aestivum vittad. 201121153746
complete nucleotide sequence of tav1, a novel totivirus isolated from a black truffle ascocarp (tuber aestivum vittad.). 201020890714
shelf-life extension of fresh tuber aestivum and tuber melanosporum truffles by modified atmosphere packaging with microperforated films.the aim of this study was to design a modified atmosphere packaging suitable for tuber melanosporum and tuber aestivum truffles that extend their shelf life and their availability as a fresh product. their respiration rates were determined by o(2) depletion and co(2) formation in closed systems performed at different temperatures: 4, 10, and 23 degrees c. the results were fitted by exponential equations and derivatives of these equations were used to obtain the experimental respiration rates. ou ...201020546403
new tuber species found in poland.new information from a survey of truffles carried out in southern part of poland in september 2007 is presented. the fruit bodies of tuber aestivum, t. excavatum, t. rufum and one unidentified tuber sp. were found. the soil chemistry of the five t. aestivum sites was analysed. our inventory showed that t. aestivum prefers the mixed forest with host-trees such as: quercus robur, corylus avellana, carpinus betulus, fagus silvaticus and tilia cordata. selection of local inocula of t. aestivum for t ...200818414906
tuber aestivum association with non-host roots.mycorrhizal fungi provide direct and functional interconnection of soil environment with their host plant roots. colonization of non-host plants have occasionally been described, but its intensity and functional significance in complex plant communities remain generally unknown. here, the abundance of ectomycorrhizal fungus tuber aestivum was measured in the roots of host and non-host (non-ectomycorrhizal) plants in a naturally occurring t. aestivum colony using a quantitative pcr approach. the ...201424756631
lactobacillus plantarum 29 inhibits penicillium spp. involved in the spoilage of black truffles (tuber aestivum).the effect of an antifungal culture of lactobacillus plantarum to be used in the storage at refrigeration temperature of fresh black truffles was examined. the strain was selected among 29 lactobacilli isolated from foods and evaluated for their viability and acidification activity at 4 °c, as well as for their inhibitory activity against 11 penicillium strains isolated from truffles stored at refrigeration temperature. lb. plantarum 29 showed the ability to hold not only the growth of penicilli ...201323815748
phylogeny and phylogeography of the tuber brumale aggr.the tuber brumale (winter truffle) is a black truffle reported from most european countries, belonging to the melanosporum group. its significance in the economy is ambivalent as the winter truffle has been shown to be a frequent contaminant species in the orchards of the perigord truffle and occasionally in those of the summer truffle, yet owing to its delicate fragrance, its trade is worthy of note. the phylogeny and phylogeography of economically important truffles are relatively well-explore ...201424604084
detection of summer truffle (tuber aestivum vittad.) in ectomycorrhizae and in soil using specific primers.tuber aestivum is becoming an important commodity of great economical value in some european countries. at the same time, it is a highly protected organism in other countries, where it needs careful treatment. a reliable method of detection in roots and soil is thus needed for assessment of geographic distribution, ecological studies and inoculation efficiency testing in man-made experiments. a pcr-based method of detection of t. aestivum using specific primers was therefore developed. a pair of ...201121385201
cultivation of mediterranean species of tuber (tuberaceae) in british columbia, canada.based on an assessment of soil and climatic conditions in british columbia (bc), the truffle association of british columbia (tabc) determined that the cultivation of mediterranean tuber melanosporum and tuber aestivum might be possible in the warmer parts of the province. with the cooperation of independent truffle growers, tabc assessed the colonization of host tree roots collected from eight truffle orchards planted 2-7 years earlier using morphological and molecular criteria. both tuber spec ...201424496857
isolation and characterization of polysaccharides with the antitumor activity from tuber fruiting bodies and fermentation system.fifty-two polysaccharides were isolated from the fermentation systems of tuber melanosporum, tuber indicum, tuber sinense, tuber aestivum and the fruiting bodies of tuber indicum, tuber himalayense, tuber sinense by elution with an activated carbon column. polysaccharides from tuber fermentation system exhibited relatively higher in vitro antitumor activity against hepg2, a549, hct-116, sk-br-3, and hl-60 cells than those from tuber fruiting bodies. all polysaccharides were mainly composed of d- ...201424272369
phenolic profile, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and cytotoxic activities of black (tuber aestivum vittad.) and white (tuber magnatum pico) truffles.the aim of this study was a comprehensive investigation on phenolic profile, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and cytotoxic activity of the still insufficiently explored black summer truffles (tuber aestivum vittad.) and white (tuber magnatum pico) truffles. methanol and water extracts, obtained by maceration and soxhlet extraction, were examined. forty-five phenolics was studied using lc-ms/ms: presence of 14 compounds was confirmed, with the most dominant being p-hydroxybenzoic acid, baicalein a ...201425038699
composition of commercial truffle flavored oils with gc-ms analysis and discrimination with an electronic nose.truffles are among the most expensive foods and their quality depends on their unique aroma, composed of complex mixtures of lipophilic volatile organic compounds (vocs). there are many foods flavored with truffle, and oils are particularly common. using dhs-gc-ms and an electronic nose (mos), 18 samples of olive oil flavored with white and black truffles from the italian market were subjected to a blind analysis. qualitative and quantitative analysis with dhs-gc-ms detected the presence of 63 v ...201424176309
new evidence for the symbiosis between tuber aestivum and picea abies.the burgundy truffle (tuber aestivum vittad.), an ectomycorrhizal fungus living in association with host plants, is one of the most exclusive delicacies. the symbiosis with deciduous oak, beech, and hazel dominates our concept of truffle ecophysiology, whereas potential conifer hosts have rarely been reported. here, we present morphological and molecular evidence of a wildlife t. aestivum symbiosis with norway spruce (picea abies karst.) and an independent greenhouse inoculation experiment, to c ...201323674121
fine-scale spatial genetic structure analysis of the black truffle tuber aestivum and its link to aroma variability.truffles are symbiotic fungi in high demand by food connoisseurs. improving yield and product quality requires a better understanding of truffle genetics and aroma biosynthesis. one aim here was to investigate the diversity and fine-scale spatial genetic structure of the burgundy truffle tuber aestivum. the second aim was to assess how genetic structuring along with fruiting body maturation and geographical origin influenced single constituents of truffle aroma. a total of 39 burgundy truffles c ...201526036799
ssr-based identification of genetic groups within european populations of tuber aestivum vittad.tuber species are ectomycorrhizal ascomycetes establishing relationships with different host trees and forming hypogeous fruiting bodies known as truffles. among tuber species, tuber aestivum vittad. has a wide distributional range being found naturally all over europe. here, we performed large-scale population genetic analyses in t. aestivum to (i) investigate its genetic diversity at the european scale, (ii) characterize its genetic structure and test for the presence of ecotypes and (iii) she ...201626070448
truffle diversity (tuber, tuberaceae) in british columbia.to improve baseline data for the developing truffle industry in british columbia, we compiled existing tuber species sequences from published and unpublished studies and generated new its sequences for truffles belonging to tuber collected in the province. in doing so, we obtained evidence that 13 species of tuber occur in the province, including six introduced and seven native species, two of which are putative undescribed species. of the native species, the tuber anniae species complex is wide ...201627083929
a review of scuttle fly genera of israel (diptera: phoridae), with new records and an identification key.a brief review of israeli scuttle flies is given. the following genera are new records for the country: arabiphora, billotia, chonocephalus, menozziola, phalacrotophora, pseudacteon, psyllomyia, and puliciphora. eighteen species-arabiphora tenuifemorata, chonocephalus depressus, conicera floricola, conicera similis, gymnophora integralis, gymnophora perpropinqua, megaselia scalaris, megaselia stigmatica, menozziola schmitzi, metopina formicomendicula, phalacrotophora beuki, phalacrotophora fasci ...201627395741
fine-scale genetic structure of natural tuber aestivum sites in southern germany.although the burgundy truffle (tuber aestivum) is an ectomycorrhizal fungus of important economic value, its subterranean life cycle and population biology are still poorly understood. here, we determine mating type and simple sequence repeat (ssr) maternal genotypes of mapped fruiting bodies to assess their genetic structure within two naturally colonized forest sites in southern germany. forty-one genotypes were identified from 112 fruiting bodies. according to their mating types, the maternal ...201627460217
comparison of chemical composition in tuber aestivum vittad. of different geographical origin.truffles are prized and nutrition-rich edible hypogeous fungi. the aim of this study was a comprehensive investigation of chemical composition of burgundy truffle (tuber aestivum vittad.). we tried to answer the question: what is the impact of the environment on the truffle quality. to know the nutritional value of burgundy truffle we compared lipids, proteins, saccharides, polyphenolics, flavonoids, total sterols, ergosterol, volatile flavour and aroma compounds content in fruit bodies of the f ...201627603569
new insights into the complex relationship between weight and maturity of burgundy truffles (tuber aestivum).despite an increasing demand for burgundy truffles (tuber aestivum), gaps remain in our understanding of the fungus' overall lifecycle and ecology. here, we compile evidence from three independent surveys in hungary and switzerland. first, we measured the weight and maturity of 2,656 t. aestivum fruit bodies from a three-day harvest in august 2014 in a highly productive orchard in hungary. all specimens ranging between 2 and 755 g were almost evenly distributed through five maturation classes. t ...201728125633
does soil fauna like truffles just as humans do? one-year study of biodiversity in natural brûlés of tuber aestivum vittad.there are numerous aspects related to tuber species, which have not been explored to date. tuber aestivum vitt. is an ectomycorrhizal fungus, that produces an area (called brûlé) around the host plant trunk, where the germination of other plants is inhibited. what happens inside this particular environment is still not sufficiently understood, especially in terms of soil fauna. a previous work showed that there were higher microarthropod abundances outside during the period of maximum activity o ...201728161039
truffle renaissance in poland - history, present and prospects.the use of truffles in poland has a long tradition, yet due to some historical aspects, this knowledge was lost. currently, truffles and truffle orchards are again receiving attention, and thanks to, e.g., historical data, they have solid foundations to be established. publications relating to truffles between 1661 and 2017 were searched for in international and national databases, such as the database of phd theses, google scholar, and catalogues of the national library of poland, the jagiellon ...201728619090
truffle biogeography-a case study revealing ecological niche separation of different tuber species.ecology of hypogeic mycorrhizal fungi, such as truffles, remains largely unknown, both in terms of their geographical distribution and their environmental niches. occurrence of true truffles (tuber spp.) was therefore screened using specific polymerase chain reaction (pcr) assays and subsequent pcr amplicon sequencing in tree roots collected at 322 field sites across the czech republic. these sites spanned a wide range of climatic and soil conditions. the sampling was a priori restricted to area ...201728649340
volatile organic compounds of schenella pityophilus.volatile organic compounds of schenella pityophilus have been identified via solid-phase microextraction-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis. ten compounds have been identified, in which 3-methylthio-1-propene was the most significant component. some other components were previously identified in tuber aestivum and tuber melanosporum.201322236093
a novel tuber aestivum (vittad.) mitovirus. 201121479945
fermentation condition outweighed truffle species in affecting volatile organic compounds analyzed by chromatographic fingerprint system.the influences of fermentation conditions and truffle species (i.e., tuber melanosporum, tuber sinense, tuber indicum, and tuber aestivum) on the volatile organic compounds (vocs) originated from truffle fermentation mycelia were studied by using chromatographic fingerprint system for the first time. gas chromatography combined with statistical methods including similarity analysis and hierarchical cluster analysis was applied to develop chromatographic fingerprint system for truffle vocs evalua ...200919576383
determination of 5alpha-androst-16-en-3alpha-ol in truffle fermentation broth by solid-phase extraction coupled with gas chromatography-flame ionization detector/electron impact mass spectrometry.a novel method using solid-phase extraction coupled with gas chromatography and flame ionization detector (fid)/electron impact mass spectrometry (eims) was developed for the determination of 5alpha-androst-16-en-3alpha-ol (androstenol), a steroidal compound belonging to the group of musk odorous 16-androstenes, in truffle fermentation broth. comparison studies between fid and eims indicated two detectors gave similar quantitative results. the highest androstenol concentration of 123.5 ng/ml was ...200818585987
effect of storage on biochemical and microbiological parameters of edible truffle species.the effects of different storage treatments on the most common edible truffle species, such as tuber magnatum and tuber borchii (white truffles), tuber melanosporum and tuber aestivum (black truffles), were analysed. biochemical and microbiological profiles were monitored, in order to evaluate possible alterations during truffle preservation. after harvesting, some fresh samples were kept at 4°c for 30days, other samples were frozen at -20°c for one month, thawed and preserved at 4°c; the remain ...200826054259
truffle melanogenesis: correlation with reproductive differentiation and ascocarp ripening.the present work uses histochemical techniques to investigate the correlation between reproductive differentiation and age of truffles (tuber aestivum and tuber melanosporum) with melanin synthesis. the dopa oxidase and tyrosine hydroxylase activities of tyrosinase have been localized within the ascocarp and melanin localization was performed by the schmorl's reaction. a true tyrosinase is present in truffles, able to oxidize both l-tyrosine and l-dopa. the tyrosinase activity is on in the young ...19921363133
species recognition in the truffle genus tuber -- the synonyms tuber aestivum and tuber uncinatum.the two morphologically similar truffles tuber aestivum and t. uncinatum have caused confusion because t. uncinatum is regarded by different authors, as either a distinct species, variety, subspecies, or synonym of t. aestivum. a clarification of the relationship between the two truffles would help both conservation biology and cultivation. we aimed both to test the reliability of the only quantitative morphological character used to distinguish the two taxa, i.e. the height of the spore reticul ...200516156727
[identification of macronutrients and some oligoelements in "molisano" tuber aestivum truffles].many scientifical published works have documented the presence of macro and micronourished of truffle coming from umbria, toscana, and piemonte, while are few the studies that documented the analysis of these nourishes of the truffle coming from molise. in our study has been evaluated the concentrations of macro-nourishes and oligoelements in molisano tuber aestivum truffle. the contents of macro-nourishes (proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and water) and oligoelements (lead, cadmium, chromium, m ...200415700629
high-field nuclear magnetic resonance (nmr) study of truffles (tuber aestivum vittadini).a high-field nmr technique was used to analyze aqueous and organic extracts of truffles (tuber aestivum vittadini) to characterize their chemical composition. water-soluble metabolites belonging to different classes such as sugars, polyols, amino acids, and organic acids were almost completely assigned by means of one- and two-dimensional experiments (1h-1h cosy, tocsy, 1h-13c hsqc, 1h-13c hmbc, and 1h-31p hmbc). the 1h spectral assignment of the cell membrane components such as lipids, sterols, ...200415612786
tuber aestivum and tuber uncinatum: two morphotypes or two species?tuber spp. are ectomycorrhizal fungi that establish symbioses with shrubs and trees. because of their different smell and taste, tuber uncinatum and tuber aestivum are two truffle morphotypes with a different market value, but whether or not t. uncinatum and t. aestivum are different taxa is still an open debate among mycologists. in order to identify molecular keys characterizing both t. aestivum and t. uncinatum morphotypes, its/rflps analyses were carried out on a large collection of samples ...200415158269
truffle aroma characterization by headspace solid-phase microextraction.in the present study, a headspace solid-phase microextraction (hs-spme) combined to gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (gc-ms) has been used to fully characterize aroma of truffles of different species. a fiber of medium polarity (for flavors) was used to avoid discrimination towards very non-polar and polar volatile compounds. in a previous work, extraction conditions were optimized by means of an experimental design leading to the following conditions that were used in the present study: ext ...200314584705
truffle aroma analysis by headspace solid phase microextraction.an experimental design has been used to optimize the extraction of volatile compounds from summer truffle aroma (tuber aestivum) by using headspace solid phase microextraction. the extracted compounds have been analyzed by gas chromatography with a flame ionization detector and by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (gc-ms). in an attempt to develop an objective method to fully characterize truffle aroma, a fiber of medium polarity (for flavors) was used to avoid discrimination toward very nonp ...200212381135
potential and limitations of burgundy truffle cultivation.burgundy truffles (tuber aestivum syn. tuber uncinatum) are the highly prized fruit bodies of subterranean fungi always occurring in ectomycorrhizal symbiosis with host plants. successful cultivation can be achieved through artificial mycorrhization and outplanting of mostly oaks and hazel on suitable terrain. here, we review ecological requirements, the influence of environmental factors, and the importance of molecular techniques for a successful cultivation of t. aestivum across europe. the h ...201323666478
antimicrobial activity of gallic acid against food-related pseudomonas strains and its use as biocontrol tool to improve the shelf life of fresh black truffles.refrigeration alone or in combination with other technologies represents the main tool used in the last decades to preserve the freshness of black truffles. this is principally due to the delicateness and vulnerability of this edible hypogeous fungus, so that other invasive preservation practices cannot be adopted. however, the proliferation of some microbial species during the cold storage still represents an unsolved problem. pseudomonads are among the main spoiler bacteria responsible for the ...201729227905
multi-cropping edible truffles and sweet chestnuts: production of high-quality castanea sativa seedlings inoculated with tuber aestivum, its ecotype t. uncinatum, t. brumale, and t. macrosporum.the plantation and management of sweet chestnut (castanea sativa mill.) orchards is a common and traditional land use system in many areas of europe that offers the advantage of simultaneous production of nuts and timber. during the last decades, sweet chestnut has declined dramatically in many regions because of the profound social changes in rural areas coupled with pathogen attacks. truffles, the hypogeous ascocarps of the ectomycorrhizal genus tuber, are currently cultivated using host trees ...201829101543
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